Kanada główny system handlu rzeką

Pierwsze narody w Kanadzie Wprowadzenie Pierwsze narody w Kanadzie są zasobem edukacyjnym zaprojektowanym do użytku przez młodych kanadyjskich licealistów i studentów Aborygenów i wszystkich zainteresowanych historią Pierwszych Narodów. Jego celem jest pomoc czytelnikom w zrozumieniu istotnych wydarzeń dotyczących społeczności Pierwszych Narodów od czasów przed-kontaktowych (przed przybyciem Europejczyków) aż po dzień dzisiejszy. Pierwsza część tego tekstu, zatytułowana Early First Nationsquot, przedstawia krótki przegląd charakterystycznych kultur sześciu głównych grup geograficznych pierwszych Pierwszych Narodów w Kanadzie. W tej części omówiono zasadnicze różnice w sześciu grupach dotyczących organizacji społecznej, zasobów żywności, domów, środków transportu, odzieży oraz duchowych wierzeń i ceremonii. Części od drugiej do szóstej tego tekstu prześledzą relacje między narodami pierwszych i nowoprzybyłych w Kanadzie od pierwszego spotkania aż do historycznych przeprosin rządów w czerwcu 2008 r. Skierowanych do wszystkich byłych studentów hinduskich szkół stacjonarnych. W tych przeprosinach Rząd Kanady wyraził głębokie ubolewanie z powodu cierpiących indywidualnych uczniów i ich rodzin doświadczonych z powodu tych szkół. Rząd przyznał także, że szkice, szkoły i polityka asymilacji sprawiły, że kultury ludów aborygeńskich, języki i dziedzictwo. Dziś Rząd Kanady współpracuje z Pierwszymi Narodami w tej nowej erze pojednania, aby budować silniejsze społeczności Pierwszych Narodów. W całym kraju ta kluczowa współpraca odbywa się w tak różnorodnych obszarach, jak gospodarki państw, edukacja, zarządzanie, usługi społeczne, prawa człowieka, kultura i rozwiązywanie zaległych roszczeń ziemi. Część 1 Wczesne pierwsze narody: Sześć głównych grup geograficznych Przed przybyciem Europejczyków, pierwsze narody w dzisiejszej Kanadzie były w stanie zaspokoić wszystkie swoje materialne i duchowe potrzeby poprzez zasoby naturalnego świata wokół nich. W celu zbadania tradycyjnych kultur Pierwszych Narodów, historycy mieli tendencję do grupowania Pierwszych Narodów w Kanadzie zgodnie z sześcioma głównymi obszarami geograficznymi kraju, jakie istnieją dzisiaj. W każdym z tych sześciu obszarów Pierwsi Ludy mieli bardzo podobne kultury, w dużej mierze ukształtowane przez wspólne środowisko. Sześć grup to: Woodland First Nations. którzy mieszkali w gęstym lesie borealnym we wschodniej części kraju Iroquoian First Nations. którzy zamieszkiwali najbardziej wysunięty na południe obszar, żyzną ziemię odpowiednią do sadzenia kukurydzy, fasoli i squasha. którzy żyli na stepach Pierwszych Narodów Plateau Prairies. których geografia wahała się od półpustynnych warunków na południu do wysokich gór i gęstego lasu na północnym wybrzeżu Pacyfiku. którzy mieli dostęp do obfitych łososi i skorupiaków oraz gigantycznego czerwonego cedru do budowy ogromnych domów i Pierwszych Narodów Mackenzie i dorzecza rzeki Yukon. którego surowe środowisko składało się z ciemnych lasów, jałowych ziem i bagnistego terenu znanego jako muskeg. W poniższej sekcji podkreślono niektóre z dużych różnic w sześciu grupach organizacji społecznej, zasobach żywnościowych i domach, środkach transportu i odzieży - a także przekonaniach duchowych szeroko rozpowszechnionych przez wszystkie wczesne narody. Organizacja społeczna Większość Leśnych Pierwszych Narodów składa się z wielu niezależnych grup, każda z własnym terytorium łowieckim. Grupy te miały zwykle mniej niż 400 osób. Lider na ogół zdobył swoją pozycję, ponieważ posiadał wielką odwagę lub umiejętności w polowaniu. Łowcy i traperzy z Woodland First Nations doskonale znają siedliska i sezonowe migracje zwierząt, od których zależą, aby przeżyć. W przeciwieństwie do Pierwszych Narodów Leśnych, Irokezja Pierwszych Narodów nie wędrowała w poszukiwaniu pożywienia. Wspaniali rolnicy, ci ludzie z południa zbierają roczne uprawy kukurydzy, fasoli i dyni, które zaspokoiły ich potrzeby. Obfitość dostaw żywności umożliwiła Irokezjackim Pierwszym Narodom (znanym obecnie jako Haudenosaunee lub People of the Longhouse) założenie stałych wspólnot i dała im wolny czas na rozwinięcie złożonych systemów rządowych opartych na demokratycznych zasadach. Na przykład Huron-Wendat posiadał trzypoziomowy system polityczny, na który składały się rady wiejskie, rady plemienne i rada konfederacyjna. Wszystkie rady podejmowały decyzje na zasadzie konsensusu, a dyskusje często odbywały się późno w nocy, aż wszyscy doszli do porozumienia. Na Równinach poszczególne grupy migracyjne, każda z własnym wodzem, zbierały się w miesiącach letnich na ceremonie duchowe, tańce, biesiady i wspólne polowania. Mimo że każda grupa była bardzo niezależna, Stowarzyszenia Narodów Plains miały towarzystwa wojskowe, które realizowały takie funkcje, jak pilnowanie porządku, regulowanie życia w obozie i marszu oraz organizowanie obrony. Organizacja społeczna kilku Równin Pierwotnych była pod wpływem sąsiadów i partnera handlowego Pierwszych Narodów Wybrzeża Pacyfiku. W rezultacie Dakelh-ne (Carrier), Tahltan i Tsilhgotin (Chilcotin) przyjęli stratyfikowane systemy społeczne krajów na wybrzeżu Pacyfiku, w tym szlachty, plebejuszy i niewolników. Poza tymi trzema odrębnymi porządkami społecznymi, Pierwszoplan Pacific Coast miał dobrze określoną klasę arystokratyczną, która od narodzin uważana była za wyższą. Podstawową jednostką społeczną dla wszystkich Pierwszych Narodów w tej części kraju była dalsza rodzina (linia), której członkowie twierdzili, że pochodzą od wspólnego przodka. Większość linii miała swoje własne herby, z przedstawieniami zwierząt lub nadprzyrodzonych istot, które uważano za ich założycieli. Najbardziej znaną metodą wyświetlania herbów był słup totemu składający się ze wszystkich rodowych symboli należących do linii. Mieszkańcy Mackenzie i dorzecza Jukonu mieszkali w rozległej ojczyźnie, gdzie zwierzęta łowne były bardzo rzadkie, a zimy długie i surowe. Podobnie jak w przypadku większości Pierwszych Narodów w całym kraju, mieszkańcy Mackenzie i dorzecza rzeki Yukon zajmowali się przede wszystkim przetrwaniem z dnia na dzień. W związku z tym First Nations zostały podzielone na kilka niezależnych grup składających się z różnych członków rodziny, którzy pracowali razem. Każda grupa polowała na oddzielne terytorium, z indywidualnymi granicami zdefiniowanymi przez tradycję i użycie. Lider grupy został wybrany w zależności od potrzeb grupy w określonym czasie. Na przykład na polowanie na karibu wybrana zostanie najbardziej sprawna łowczyni. Zasoby żywnościowe Wszystkie pierwsze narody w całym kraju ścigały i zbierały rośliny zarówno w celach spożywczych, jak i leczniczych. Rzeczywisty procent mięsa, ryb i roślin w jakiejkolwiek diecie Pierwszych Narodów zależał od tego, co było dostępne w lokalnym środowisku. Pierwsza Leśna Kraina Lasu (i wszystkie pierwsze narody w północnych regionach) ścigały zwierzynę łowną włóczniami, łukami i strzałami. Ci pierwsi również używali pułapek i pętli typu snaresa, które chwytały zwierzę za szyję lub nogę. Północni myśliwi, tacy jak Gwichin, budowali skomplikowane płoty prowadzące ze słupkami i pędzlem. Gwichin użył tych ogrodzeń, by wpędzić zwierzęta w obszar, w którym zastawiono pułapki. Aby zapewnić sobie czas trudny, ludzie suszili duże zapasy mięsa, ryb i jagód w okresie letnim. Zimą, aby zabezpieczyć mięso mrożone przed takimi zwierzętami, jak rosomak, część Pierwszych Narodów Mackenzie i dorzecza Jukonu przechowywały żywność wysoko na drzewie z pniem obranym od kory. Mimo że Haudenosaue mieli dużo mięsa, ryb i drobiu na wolności, żyli głównie na własnych plonach, fasolach i squashach, które nazywano "Trzema siostrami". Mężczyźni rozeszli się do sadzenia, siekali drzewa i cięcie szczotki, podczas gdy kobiety sadziły, pielęgnowały i zbierały plony. Po około 10 latach, gdy ziemia się wyczerpała, ludzie przenieśli się i oczyścili nowe żyzne pola. Ponieważ bawoły były głównym przedmiotem ich polowania, Plains First Nations posiadało kulturę łowiecką, która była wysoko rozwinięta przez tysiące lat. Wspólne polowanie miało miejsce w czerwcu, lipcu i sierpniu, kiedy bawoły były grube, ich mięso było lepsze, a skóry łatwo ubrane. Pojedynczy bawół dostarczał dużo mięsa, przy czym byki miały średnio około 700 kilogramów. Zjedzone na świeżo, mięso pieczono na rożnie lub gotowano w torebce ze skórkami z gorącymi kamieniami, proces, który wytworzył bogatą, pożywną zupę. Równie częste było suszone mięso bawołów znane jako szarpane, które można było przechowywać przez długi czas w workach z surowej skóry. Kobiety przygotowały także wysokoproteinowe mięso parmezanowe wbite w proszek, który następnie zmieszano z gorącym, roztopionym bawolim tłuszczem i jagodami. Łowca mógł z łatwością nosić te cenne produkty spożywcze w małej skórzanej torbie. Pemmican później stał się podstawowym w diecie sprzedawców futra i voyageurs. Łosoś był głównym źródłem pożywienia Pierwszych Narodów Plateau. Nawet łowcy Tahltan z północy gromadzili każdą wiosnę na łowiskach, aby poczekać na przybycie pierwszego łososia. Ludzie używali sieci zanurzeniowych i budowali jazy na płyciznach szybkich wód, aby łapać pułapki ryb. Spośród tysięcy złowionych łososia każdego roku bardzo mała część została zjedzona na świeżo. Pozostałą część oczyszczono, wędzono i przechowywano zimą w podziemnych dołach wyłożonych kory brzozowej. Rośliny dziko żyjące i jagody również stanowiły ważną część diety Pierwszych Narodów Plateau, w szczególności Salish Wnętrz. Ogromne zasoby żywnościowe oceanów, skorupiaków, ośmiornic, śledzia, krabów, wielorybów i wodorostów sprawiły, że Wyspy Pacyfiku mogły osiedlić się w stałych miejscach. W przeciwieństwie do Haudenosaunee, która co dziesięć lat przenosiła się, Wyspy Pacyfiku zazwyczaj budowały trwałe wioski. W niektórych wioskach można znaleźć dowody okupacji od ponad 4000 lat. Podobnie jak Plateau First Nations, mieszkańcy Wybrzeża Pacyfiku wysuszyli większość łososia w wędzarni, aby można go było później przechowywać i jeść. Olej z ryb również odgrywał ważną rolę w diecie ludowej, służąc jako przyprawa z suszonymi rybami w miesiącach zimowych. Cennym źródłem ropy był eulachon, rodzaj wytopu. Wybrzeża Tsimshian, Haida i Nuu-chah-nulth ścigały lwa morskiego i wydrę morską, wychodząc do oceanu z harpunami w wąskich łodziach. Jednak najbardziej spektakularnym ze wszystkich morskich polowań była pogoń Nuu-chah-nulths dla wieloryba. Nuu-chah-nulth kajaki wielorybnicze były wystarczająco duże dla załogi ośmiu i harpuna, który był uzbrojony w harpun z drewna cisa o długości około czterech metrów i siedział bezpośrednio za dziobem. Z powodu wędrownego stylu życia, First Nations of the Woodland, Plains i Mackenzie oraz Yukon River Basins zbudowali domy, które były przenośne lub łatwe do wzniesienia z materiałów znajdujących się w ich bezpośrednim otoczeniu. Leśne i północne domy ludowe były w zasadzie szkieletem biegunów pokrytych korą, tkanymi matami spienionymi lub karibu, zwanymi tipis. Równiny Tipi z plemion pierwszej generacji były zwykle wykonane z długich smukłych drzew sosnowych. Były bardzo cenione, ponieważ na preriach niełatwo było znaleźć zamienniki. Średnia pokrywa Tipi składała się z 12 bawolych skór zszywanych razem. Aby zapobiec przeciągom i zapewnić wewnętrzną wentylację, wewnętrzna ściana skór o wysokości około dwóch metrów była często przymocowana do biegunów wewnątrz. Kobiety zrobiły, wzniosły i posiadały tipi. W przeciwieństwie do koczowniczych Pierwszych Narodów, Haudenosaunee posiadały stosunkowo trwałe wioski. Dom longhouse był najbardziej uderzającą cechą wioski Haudenosaunee. Struktura ta składała się z odwróconego kształtu litery U wykonanego z biegunów, które następnie pokryte były kory. Długości miały zwykle około 10 metrów szerokości, 10 metrów wysokości i 25 metrów długości. Każdy dom był prowadzony przez potężną matriarchę, która nadzorowała jej codzienne sprawy z rodziną. Pośród Pierwszych Narodów Płaskowyż, podziemne domy Salishów Wewnętrznych nie były podobne do innych Pierwszych Narodów w tym kraju. Salish wnętrza wykopał dół, zwykle około dwóch metrów głębokości i szerokości od sześciu do dwunastu metrów, w dobrze odwodnionej ziemi, zazwyczaj w pobliżu rzeki. Lokalizacja ta oznaczała, że ​​czysta woda, ryby i środki transportu były łatwo dostępne. Następnie Salish Wnętrza przykrył dół konstrukcją słupów i zaizolował to mieszkanie świerkowymi konarami i ziemią, która została usunięta z dołu. Otwór o powierzchni około 1,25 metra pozostawiono na górze i służył zarówno jako wejście, jak i otwór dymowy. Ludzie wchodzili do domu za pomocą stopni wyrzeźbionych w mocnej, pochyłej kłodzie, której szczyt wystaje z otworu w dole. Ogromne lasy czerwonego cedru wzdłuż wybrzeża Pacyfiku pozwoliły pierwszym narodom, które mieszkały w tej części kraju, zbudować ogromne domy. Doskonali cieśle, ci pierwsi użyli dłuta z kamienia lub muszli i młotków do kamienia, aby podzielić miękki, prosty gatunek cedru na szerokie deski. Jednym z największych tradycyjnych domów, jakie kiedykolwiek zarejestrowano w erze pre-contact, była wioska Coast Salish. Miał 170 metrów długości i 20 metrów szerokości. Ponieważ domy na wybrzeżu Pacyfiku były tak duże, mogły pomieścić kilka rodzin, każda z osobnym salonem i paleniskiem. Tryby transportu Woodland First Nations skonstruował kajaki z kory brzozowej, które były lekkie, wytrzymałe i opływowe, aby poruszać się po licznych rzekach i jeziorach w tym obszarze. Budowniczowie kajakarstwa zszywali razem arkusze kory, a następnie przymocowywali je do drewnianej ramy przy użyciu watup białego korzenia świerku, który został podzielony, obrany i przemoczony. Szwy naczyń zostały uszczelnione powłoką z podgrzewanej gumy świerkowej i smaru. W dorzeczu Mackenzie i Jukonu brzozy nie rosły tak duże, jak w południowych regionach kraju. Jednak wiele północnych Pierwszych Narodów było w stanie zbudować długie kajaki, używając gumy świerkowej do uszczelniania szwów pomiędzy mniejszymi kawałkami kory. Niektóre Haudenosaunee również budowały kora pokryte lodem. Jednak te pierwsze narody podróżowały głównie lądem. Wyjątkowi biegacze, Haudenosaunee może pokonać bardzo duże odległości w bardzo krótkim czasie. Gdy koń został wprowadzony na równiny przez europejskich odkrywców około 1700 roku, ludy Pierwszych Narodów Równin szybko przystosowały się i stały się wykwalifikowanymi jeźdźcami. W ciągu 100 lat od jej wprowadzenia, koń był istotną częścią kultury Pierwszych Narodów Plains w polowaniu, wojnie, podróży i transporcie towarów. Wcześniej głównym środkiem transportu dóbr i mienia domowego był pies, a za nim długie drążki przymocowane do boków psów, do których przymocowana była rama do przechowywania bagaży. Pacific Nations First Nations podróżował prawie wyłącznie wodą, używając czółenek z czerwonego cedru. Rozmiar zmieniał się w zależności od funkcji kajaków. Małe łódki myśliwskie dla jednego lub dwóch mężczyzn miałyby około pięciu metrów długości. Haida zbudowała bardzo duże kajaki. Niektóre kajaki Haida miały ponad 16 metrów długości i dwa metry szerokości i mogły pomieścić 40 ludzi i dwie metryczne tony ładunku. Faktyczny proces budowy canoe może trwać od trzech do czterech tygodni i ma swoje własne rytuały, w tym modlitwę i abstynencję seksualną dla twórcy czółna. Ci utalentowani mężczyźni rozciągnęli kadłub łodzi używając procesu zmiękczania parą. Wodę wlewa się do zagłębienia i doprowadza do wrzenia z gorącymi kamieniami. Następnie wprowadzono drewniane nosze, aby utrzymać boki kajaka podczas jego chłodzenia. Podczas podróży zimowych wszystkie Narody Narodowe zbudowały jakąś formę rakiet śnieżnych z drewnianą ramą i nieutwardzoną taśmą. Kształt i rozmiar rakiet śnieżnych zmieniał się w zależności od rodzaju terenu. Wszystkie Pierwsze Narody w całym kraju, z wyjątkiem Wybrzeża Pacyfiku, zrobiły ubranie - tuniki, legginsy i mokasyny garbowanej skóry zwierząt. Woodland i Northern First Nations używały skóry łosia, jelenia lub karibu. Równiny Pierwszych Narodów używały głównie jasnych skórek zwierząt, takich jak bawoły, antylopy, łosie lub jelenie. Kobiety przygotowywały skóry zwierząt i stosowały proces garbowania dymu, aby zachować skóry. Igły do ​​kości były używane do szycia odzieży za pomocą ścięgien z tyłu lub nóg karibu, łosia lub jelenia. W zimie ludzie nosili szaty z futra, aby uzyskać dodatkowe ciepło. Skórki Caribou były szczególnie cenione przez First Nations of Mackenzie i Yukon River Basins, ponieważ włosy Caribou są doskonałym izolatorem. Ilekroć pozwalała pogoda, mężczyźni z wybrzeży Pacyfiku Pierwszych Narodów poszli bez ubrania. Kobiety z wybrzeża Tsimshian nosiły spódnice z koźlej skóry, ale gdzieniegdzie na wybrzeżu Pacyfiku spódnice damskie były utkane z kory cedrowej, która została pocięta w celu wytworzenia miękkiego włókna. Ani mężczyźni, ani kobiety z Pierwszych Narodów Pacyfiku nie mieli żadnego rodzaju obuwia. W deszczową pogodę ci przybrzeżni ludzie nosili tkane płaszcze przeciwdeszczowe i kapelusze z szerokim rondem z tkanych, świerkowych korzeni. Nuu-chah-nulth i Kwakwakawakw również stworzyli charakterystyczną długą szatę utkaną z kory żółtego cedru. Niektóre z tych szat przeplatały się z górską wełną kozią, a najbardziej luksusowe miały granice morskiej wydrowej sierści. Wszelkie ozdobne ubranie pochodziło z natury. Wiele Woodland, Haudenosaunee i Northern First Nations użyło farbowanych igiełek z jeża w celu wyhaftowania wzorów na ich ubraniach i mokasynach. Mężczyźni i kobiety zabarwiali swoje ubrania czerwonymi, żółtymi, niebieskimi i zielonymi barwnikami pochodzącymi z kwiatów, owoców, korzeni i jagód. Ludzie z Pierwszych Narodów Równiny również regularnie nosili farbę do twarzy, a czerwony barwnik pochodzący z gliny był bardzo popularnym kolorem. Duchowe wierzenia Wszystkie pierwsze narody wierzyły, że ich wartości i tradycje są darami od Stwórcy. Jedną z najważniejszych i najczęstszych nauk było to, że ludzie powinni żyć w harmonii ze światem przyrody i wszystkim, co zawiera. W ustnych opowieściach i legendach, że Starsi przeszli z pokolenia na pokolenie, dzieci Pierwszych Narodów nauczyły się, jak powstał świat i że są częścią całego stworzenia. Ludzie dziękowali wszystkiemu w naturze, od którego zależali, aby przetrwać i rozwijać się jako jednostki i członkowie ich wspólnot. Pierwsi ludzie traktowali wszystkie obiekty w ich otoczeniu, ożywiając je lub inanimując z najwyższym szacunkiem. Ten głęboki szacunek, że Pierwsi ludzie kultywowali wszystko i każdy proces w naturalnym świecie, odbijał się w pieśniach, tańcach, festiwalach i ceremoniach. Na przykład z Pierwszych Narodów Leśnych myśliwy porozmawiał lub śpiewał niedźwiedziu przed śmiercią, dziękując zwierzęciu za dostarczenie myśliwemu i jego rodzinie bardzo potrzebnego jedzenia. Zgodnie z kulturą rolniczą, Haudenosaunee organizowało od sześciu do ośmiu festiwali rocznie, związanych z uprawą gleby i dojrzewaniem owoców i jagód. Przez siedem dni odbywało się święto, by podziękować, gdy na przykład zasadzono kukurydzę, a innym, gdy było zielone. Trzeci festiwal odbył się, gdy zbierano zboże. Pierwsze narody Wybrzeża Pacyfiku odbyły wiele rytuałów, aby podziękować i świętować roczny bieg łososia. Rytuały te obejmowały ceremonię powitania i ofiary dla pierwszego łososia w tym roku. Dla zasad, które kierowały ich codziennym postępowaniem, wiele Pierwszych Narodów podzielało systemy wartości podobne do Siedmiu Nauk Dziadek ludów Anishnaabe. Te nauki podkreślały mądrość, miłość, szacunek, odwagę, uczciwość, pokorę i prawdę jako wartości, które umożliwiają ludziom życie w sposób, który promuje harmonię i równowagę ze wszystkimi i wszystkim w stworzeniu. Część 2 Historia Pierwszych Narodów Relacje Nowicjusz Pierwsze Spotkania Sojusze wojskowe i komercyjne (pierwszy kontakt z 1763) Ludy rdzenne okupowały Amerykę Północną od tysięcy lat, zanim europejscy odkrywcy po raz pierwszy przybyli na wschodnie brzegi kontynentu w XI wieku. Ci nowi byli norweskimi odkrywcami i osadnikami, przemieszczającymi się zawsze na zachód ze Skandynawii na Islandię i Grenlandię, a ostatecznie na wyspę Nowej Funlandii. Tam założyli pierwszą amerykańską kolonię w Ameryce Północnej w LAnse aux Meadows. Chociaż ta kolonia była krótkotrwała, oznaczała początek europejskich poszukiwań i migracji, które radykalnie zmieniłyby życie rdzennych mieszkańców Ameryki Północnej. Europejskie osady kolonialne i handel futrami W XVI wieku Europejczycy powrócili na wschodnie wybrzeże Ameryki Północnej, aby założyć osady. W tym czasie wielu Europejczyków słyszało od powracających rybaków o bogactwie zasobów, które oferował Nowy Świat. Zafascynowany Wielkimi Bankami pełnymi zapasów dorsza rybacy, baskijski, bretoński, hiszpański, portugalski, francuski, irlandzki i angielski nawiązali już kontakt i wymieniali się nim z ludami Mikmaq i Maliseet we wschodnim wybrzeżu. Ponieważ każdego lata wracali na połów ryb i suszili ich połów, ci rybacy opracowali nieformalny system handlu z First Nations, wymieniając europejskie towary na futra. Wkrótce powstała sieć konkurencyjnych kolonii w obu Amerykach, gdy różne europejskie mocarstwa naciskały na poszerzenie własnego bogactwa i wpływów w tym Nowym Świecie. W Ameryce Północnej szybko Brytyjczycy i Francuzi stali się dominującymi mocarstwami. Na początku XVII wieku Brytyjczycy założyli kilka kolonii i zaczęli osiedlać się na dużą skalę. Podstawami imperium Frances North American były kolonie Acadia w Maritimes i Nowej Francji w Dolinie Świętego Wawrzyńca. Wkrótce po założeniu tych kolonii obie mocarstwa scementowały sojusze z Pierwszymi Narodami w celu wspierania ich interesów handlowych, w tym handlu futrami. Brytyjczycy sprzymierzeni z Konfederacją Iroquois (obecnie znaną jako Haudenosaunee lub People of the Longhouse, grupa ta składała się z Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga i Seneca First Nations) i Pierwszych Narodów z Góry Allegheny. Francuzi sprzymierzyli się z Pierwszymi Narodami na północ od rzeki Świętego Wawrzyńca (Huron, Algonquin, Odawa i Montagnais) oraz w Acadii (Mikmaq, Maliseet i Passamaquoddy). Korzystając z ugruntowanych rdzennych szlaków handlowych Wewnętrznych, Anglicy i Francuzi oraz ich sojusznicy z Pierwszych Narodów rozwinęli szeroki handel skupiony na skórach bobrów, które rozprzestrzeniły się w Ameryce Północnej. Ten handel pobudził nowe eksploracje europejskie w całym basenie Wielkich Jezior, w Prairies iw dół rzeki Mississippi. Sojusze i konflikty wojskowe Francuscy i brytyjscy odkrywcy, handlarze futrami i żołnierze podążali szlakami handlowymi w głąb lądu. Tam utworzyli sieć fortów i stanowisk, aby zaopatrzyć swoich partnerów handlowych z krajów partnerskich i potwierdzić ich obecność. Pierwsze narody szybko przystosowały się do tego nowego handlu, który przyniósł im towary europejskie, takie jak wyroby żelazne i broń palna. Handel futrami był tak opłacalny i ważny, że różne interesy Europy i Pierwszych Narodów często zderzały się gwałtownie w XVI i XVII wieku. Konkurencja między grupami, takimi jak wspomniana wyżej Haudenosaunee i Huronem, doprowadziła do totalnej wojny. W połowie XVII wieku Huron wypędzono z tradycyjnych terytoriów wokół Zatoki Gruzińskiej. W 1701 r. Ta burzliwa era dobiegła końca, kiedy Francja i 40 Pierwszych Narodów podpisały traktat w Montrealu znany jako Wielki Pokój. Dzięki porozumieniu różne lwowskie narody w basenie Wielkich Jezior obiecały zaprzestać gwałtownych ataków i podzielić się nimi, jako danie limitowe z dwiema łyżeczkami. Co więcej, tuż przed konferencją w Montrealu, przywódcy Haudenosaunee zgodzili się sprzedać wszystkie Krainy Wielkich Jezior dla Brytyjczyków w zamian za ich ochronę i dalsze prawo do polowania i łowienia na całym terytorium. Haudenosaunee nie tylko osiągnęli stabilny pokój z Francuzami i ich sojusznikami, ale także zapewnili brytyjską ochronę swoim krajom i interesom. Gdy francuskie i brytyjskie kolonie pchnęły się dalej w głąb lądu, ich rywalizacja o kontrolę nad bogatym wnętrzem Ameryki Północnej stała się nowym teatrem wojny w walkach o władzę, które wybuchają w całej Europie. Te walki o władzę, szczególnie między Brytyjczykami i Francuzami, przekształciły ich partnerstwa handlowe z Pierwszymi Narodami w ważne sojusze wojskowe, które przyniosły tak potrzebne wsparcie dla obu obozów. Zrozpaczony o pomoc wojskową przed ostatecznym konfliktem francusko-brytyjskim w Ameryce Północnej (Wojna siedmioletnia 17561763), brytyjscy administratorzy utworzyli Departament Indyjski w 1755 roku, by koordynować sojusze z potężnymi Haudenosaunee. Nowy Departament próbował także rozwiązać problemy dotyczące oszustw kolonialnych i nadużyć wobec Pierwszych Narodów i ich ziem wzdłuż granicy kolonialnej. W 1760 r. Upadek Montrealthe ostatniej francuskiej twierdzy na St. Lawrenceput zakończył francuskie wysiłki kolonialne w tym, co stałoby się Kanadą. Zwycięstwo Wielkiej Brytanii doprowadziło do reorientacji sojuszów Pierwszych Narodów, które istniały od ponad 150 lat. W całej byłej kolonii Nowej Francji i Acadii Brytyjczycy podjęli szereg traktatów, aby zapewnić neutralność Pierwszych Narodów i nawiązać pokojowe stosunki. W regionie morskim, gdzie ziemie były ostro kwestionowane od początku 1700 roku, Brytyjczycy i Mikmaq, Maliseet i ludy Passamaquoddy weszły w dziesiątki traktatów o pokoju i przyjaźni. W 1760 r. Aborygeńscy sprzymierzeńcy Nowej Francji wezwali Brytyjczyków do uznania ich neutralności w wojnie siedmioletniej i zawarli traktat Swegatchie i traktat Murray. Chociaż sir William Johnson, nadinspektor departamentu indyjskiego, ciężko pracował nad zrównaniem stosunków ze sceptycznymi byłymi sojusznikami Francuzów, nie odniósł pełnego sukcesu. Krótko po upadku Montrealu lider Odawa, Pontiac, wątpiąc w brytyjskie intencje i motywy, przeprowadził serię ataków na brytyjskie pozycje wojskowe w całym regionie Wielkich Jezior. Niemniej jednak, połączenie misji wojskowych i dyplomatycznych umożliwiło Johnsonowi i Departamentowi Indyjskiemu nawiązanie pokojowych, choć nieco niełatwych, stosunków z różnymi Narodami Narodowymi Spraw Wewnętrznych. Królewska proklamacja z 1763 r. Traktat paryski z 1763 r. Zakończył ponad 150 lat europejskiej rywalizacji i konfliktów. Dzięki tej umowie Francja oddała swoje kolonialne terytoria na teren dzisiejszej Kanady, w tym Acadię, Nową Francję i ziemie wewnętrzne Wielkich Jezior oraz doliny Ohio i Missisipi. Wielka Brytania była teraz główną europejską potęgą w dużej części Ameryki Północnej, kontrolując wszystkie cenne handlowe futra. Mimo tej dominacji Brytyjczycy nie kontrolowali w pełni kontynentu. Brytyjscy administratorzy zdali sobie sprawę, że sukces brytyjskich kolonii północnoamerykańskich zależy od stabilnych i pokojowych stosunków z Pierwszymi Narodami. Aby to osiągnąć, król Jerzy III wydał proklamację królewską w 1763 r., W której określono sposób zarządzania koloniami. Ten obszerny dokument ustanowił zdecydowaną zachodnią granicę dla kolonii. Wszystkie ziemie na zachód od tej granicy stały się Indyjskimi Terytoriami, gdzie nie mogło dojść do osiedlenia się lub handlu bez pozwolenia Departamentu Indyjskiego. Proklamacja ustanowiła bardzo ścisłe protokoły dotyczące wszystkich kontaktów z Pierwszymi Narodami. Od 1763 r. Departament Indyjski stał się podstawowym punktem kontaktowym między narodami i koloniami. Ponadto tylko Korona mogła nabyć ziemię od Pierwszego Narodu, co zostało oficjalnie usankcjonowane przez przedstawicieli Korony negocjujących z zainteresowanym Pierwszym Narodem na publicznym zebraniu. Wszystkie inne zakupy gruntów zostały uznane za nieważne i zostały oddalone. Pierwotna intencja proklamacji królewskiej polegała na spowolnieniu niekontrolowanej zachodniej ekspansji kolonii i ścisłej kontroli relacji między rdzennymi narodami i kolonistami. Ale, co najważniejsze, Proklamacja stała się również pierwszym publicznym uznaniem praw Pierwszych Narodów do ziemi i tytułu. Część 3 - Zmieniające się relacje od sojuszników do oddziałów (17631862) Aż do końca XVIII wieku stosunki między rdzennymi narodami a Koroną brytyjską w dużej mierze opierały się na interesach komercyjnych i wojskowych. Departament Indian miał jeden główny cel dla brytyjskiej administracji w całym Wielkich Jeziorach, utrzymując pokój pomiędzy małą liczbą brytyjskich żołnierzy i handlarzy stacjonujących na odległych stanowiskach handlowych, a znacznie liczniejszymi i dobrze uzbrojonymi Pierwszymi Narodami. Pod kierownictwem Sir Williama Johnsona Departament Indii działał jako pośrednik między przywódcami wojskowymi i przywódcami Pierwszych Narodów, zabezpieczając tereny dla fortów zapewniających dostęp do handlu, futra i towary wydające coroczne prezenty i organizujące konferencje pokojowe. Jak jasno wyjaśnił Johnson w liście do brytyjskiego rządu, potężna pozycja Pierwszych Narodów oznaczała, że ​​brytyjskie interesy komercyjne mogły rozkwitać jedynie we wnętrzu, gdyby Korona podjęła zdecydowane kroki w celu ochrony tych interesów. Traktaty i rosnąca kolonia Wybuch amerykańskiej wojny o niepodległość i późniejsze uznanie przez Brytyjczyków Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki w 1783 r. Miał dramatyczny wpływ na stosunki między Koroną Brytyjską a jej sojusznikami z Pierwszych Narodów. Utrata amerykańskich kolonii przyniosła około 30 000 uchodźców lojalistów zjednoczonych Imperium do pozostałych brytyjskich kolonii w Ameryce Północnej. Potężna grupa ludzi, którzy stracili wszystko ze względu na poparcie dla sprawy brytyjskiej, ci lojaliści poprosili administratorów kolonialnych o nowe ziemie. Osadnicy nie byli jedynymi uchodźcami z nowo niepodległych Stanów Zjednoczonych. Pierwsze narody, które walczyły u boku Brytyjczyków, również zostały wywłaszczone przez wojnę, zwłaszcza Sześciu Narodów Konfederacji Irokezów (ta grupa składała się z Konfederacji Pięciu Narodów wspomnianej powyżej oraz Pierwszego Narodu Tuscarora). Ich ziemie zostały jednostronnie przekazane Amerykanom na mocy traktatu wersalskiego z 1783 roku. quotHis Majestys Lojalni sojusznicy z Konfederacji Irokezów byli teraz uchodźcami w Montrealu i domagali się odszkodowania za ich wysiłki w imieniu Korony. W odpowiedzi urzędnicy z Departamentu Indyjskiego wynegocjowali szereg umów o podporządkowaniu ziemi z różnymi ludami Anishinaabeg (Odawa, Ojibwa i Algonquin First Nations) zamieszkującymi ziemie wzdłuż rzeki Świętego Wawrzyńca i wokół Wielkich Jezior. Te zrzuty ziemi, które w dużej mierze poprzedzały przybycie osadników do tego obszaru, pozwoliły na niezwykle pokojowe założenie kolonii rolniczej. Aby zrekompensować sojusznikom Pierwszych Narodów straty poniesione podczas wojny z Amerykanami, Korona Brytyjska odłożyła dwie paczki ziemi jako rezerwy dla Sześciu Narodów w Zatoce Quinte, a drugą wzdłuż Wielkiej Rzeki. W ostatnich dekadach XVIII wieku brytyjscy przywódcy wojskowi i Departament Indyjski nadal przykładali dużą wagę do swoich silnych sojuszy wojskowych z First Nations. Obawiali się przyszłego konfliktu z nowym państwem amerykańskim na południu i widzieli licznych wojowników z pierwszej wojny światowej jako istotnych dla obrony ich kolonii. Departament Indian pracował nad umocnieniem zniszczonych sojuszy, próbując zabezpieczyć uczciwe transakcje dotyczące zrzeczeń ziemi i ochrony ziem Pierwszych Narodów. The Department also issued yearly presents and weaponry during gatherings and conferences with First Nations chiefs and leaders, even those in American territories. These alliances were tested and proved to be strong as war did eventually break out between Britain and its former American colonies. During the War of 1812, First Nations fought alongside the British and Canadian colonists against the American invasion of what is now southern Ontario. Shifting Relationships Once peace returned to North America, new immigrants and colonists continued to arrive. Less than 50 years after the first land surrenders for settlers in Upper Canada, the non-First Nations population outnumbered the settler population in the Great Lakes basin. To provide land for new settlers farms, the pace of land surrenders increased. Some 35 sales were concluded, covering all the lands of Upper Canadafrom the productive agricultural lands in the south to the natural resource-rich lands of Lake Superior and Georgian Bay. As settlers demanded more and more property, they began to pressure the colonial administration for the lands held by First Nations. Instead of a bastion of colonial defence, the colonys First Nations populations were now regarded as an impediment to growth and prosperity. Not only had military threats to the colonies faded with the end of the War of 1812, but the colonial militia was able to draw on the ever-growing settler population to meet the colonys defensive needs. In the decades following the War of 1812, British administrators therefore began to regard First Nations as dependents, rather than allies. By the 1830s, with more and more lands surrendered for settlement, only pockets of First Nations lands remained in Upper Canada. For the most part, the land surrender treaties did not create sizeable reserves for the First Nations signatories. First Nations thus increasingly lost access to hunting grounds and became a dispossessed people on their former lands. A treaty concluded in 1836 by the Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, Sir Francis Bond Head, established Manitoulin Island in Georgian Bay as a reserve for the dispossessed First Nations population. The goal was to encourage these landless peoples to relocate to the island where they would be removed from the more harmful aspects of colonial society (specifically alcohol and prostitution) and where they would adapt to the new colonial reality at a controlled pace. However, few First Nations actually relocated to Manitoulin Island. Most continued to live on small plots of lands set aside by the treaties or on the lands of religious missions trying to convert them to Christianity. Some squatted on Crown Lands, living an increasingly destitute life. Meanwhile, the Crown continued to conclude land surrender treaties with First Nations until 1862. As settlement lands were filled, attention turned for the first time to northern areas where minerals had been discovered along the shores of Lake Superior and Lake Huron. As a result, the Robinson-Huron and Robinson-Superior treaties of the 1850s were negotiated with the various Anishinaabeg peoples inhabiting the area. These two treaties, unlike any previously negotiated treaties, would become the template for future agreements with First Nations in the West. Specifically, the two Robinson treaties ceded First Nations lands and rights to the Crown in exchange for reserves, annuities and First Nations continued right to hunt and fish on unoccupied Crown lands. This formula to conclude agreements with numerous bands for large tracts of lands would become the model for the Post-Confederation Numbered Treaties . The Hudsons Bay Company While Britain established its new colony on the St. Lawrence, the Company of Adventurers, better known as the Hudsons Bay Company (HBC), continued to trade as it had done since 1670. With an exclusive monopoly and a charter for all the lands of the Hudson Bay watershed, the HBC traded with the First Nations of what is now Northern Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba. In search of rich supplies of furs for the European market, this trade extended along the coasts of the Hudson and James bays. Only peripherally affected by the nearly continuous colonial conflict between France and Britain, the HBC was able to establish a series of posts at strategic major rivers. These early posts, such as Fort Albany and York Factory, became the base for an extensive trade alliance with the Cree. In exchange for a wide variety of goods (knives, kettles, beads, needles and blankets), the Cree traded vast amounts of animal furs from the Interior. As the fur trade grew more lucrative, the Cree became a sort of intermediary between the Company and the Interior groups. They collected furs and pelts from other First Nations hunters and took them to the HBC posts on the coast. Because of the HBC s monopoly over all trade on lands where the waters flowed into Hudson Bay, this trade relationship proved very profitable for both parties. Not all parties, however, were happy with the Companys monopoly over some of the richest fur territories in North America. Following the transfer of New France to the British, French traders based in Montreal began to look for new sources of fur. Several new companies began to challenge the HBC. the most successful being the Northwest Company. Using the system of Interior trading posts and routes established by the French before 1763, the NorWesters, as they were known, exploited the lands of the Upper Great Lakes by going out to trade and collect the furs themselves. The Northwest Company, aided by the paddling and hauling skills of French-Canadian, Mtis and First Nations voyageurs, went directly to the source of the furs. In this way, they were able to redirect a large quantity of furs away from the Cree intermediaries and the HBC posts far to the north. Using the Ottawa River route from Montreal up to Lake Nippissing and across to Lake Superior, the Northwest Company controlled the bulk of the fur trade heading to Montreal and across to Europe. From their companys primary post, Fort William (near present-day Thunder Bay), the NorWesters extended their reach into the vast Prairies of North America. By going into the Interior and trading directly with First Nations hunters, the Northwest Company disrupted the long-standing relationship between the HBC and its Cree intermediaries. Faced with a sharp decline in fur stocks, the HBC governors in London responded by adopting their rivals tactics and abandoning the use of First Nations middlemen. During the first two decades of the 19th century, the HBC and Northwest Company pushed further down the North and South Saskatchewan, the Assiniboine and the Athabasca rivers (among others) in a race to get to First Nations hunters and their fur stocks. This competition not only pitted the traders against each other, but First Nations also joined the fray in an attempt to secure the best prices and goods for their furs. In 1821, after a bloody decade of violence and conflict on the Prairies, the two companies merged into a new and reinvigorated Hudsons Bay Company. The renewed HBC now stretched across the northern half of the continent and held a near total monopoly on trade from the Pacific Coast to Hudson Bay and down to Montreal. This long history of trade, commerce and competition brought about major changes for the First Nations populations of the northern Plains. Above all, the European desire for fur radically transformed Indigenous economies. Rather than small-scale hunting for furs, First Nations were dedicating more and more time and resources to the seemingly endless European demand for animal pelts. The HBC s desire for bison pelts and pemmican (a type of preserved bison meat popular among traders and voyageurs) transformed the Plains First Nations buffalo hunt from one of subsistence to extensive commercial exploitation. Trade patterns shifted towards the northern HBC posts and later to the Interior trading posts that were scattered across the Prairies. Traders who had to ship goods down the rivers to central depots such as Fort William hired First Nations men as labourers and porters. All of these activities contributed to a wide-scale diffusion of European goods, especially iron wares, knives and firearms, and to First Nations dependence on these goods. A second major impact of the extended fur trade was increased contact between First Nations, traders and settlers, which would have a dramatic effect on First Nations over the long term. The far-flung and isolated trading posts became gathering places for many groupsnot only for trade with the HBC. but also for traders and First Nations themselves. This proximity to traders meant easy access to alcohol, which would have devastating effects on First Nations. In 1812, the Governor of the Hudsons Bay Company, the Earl of Selkirk, established a colonial settlement where the Red and Assiniboine rivers meet. Plagued by poor planning and the ongoing conflict between the HBC and the Northwest Company, this initial attempt to organize a colony in the Interior ended in failure. However, a few settlers and Company men did remain in the area and lived in the Interior year-round. Eventually, these people helped form a more established community along the Red River. Decades of intermarriage between HBC traders and voyageurs with First Nation women created a new and distinct Aboriginal groupthe Mtiscentred at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers. This close-knit community merged and adopted European and First Nations customs and lifestyles to meet the needs of the growing frontier settlement. Part 4 - Legislated Assimilation Development of the Indian Act (18201927) quotCivilizing the Indianquot As First Nations military role in the colony waned, British administrators began to look at new approaches to their relationship. In fact, a new perspective was emerging throughout the British Empire about the role the British should play with respect to Indigenous peoples. This new perspective was based on the belief that British society and culture were superior there was also a missionary fervour to bring British quotcivilizationquot to the Empires Indigenous people. In the colonies of Upper and Lower Canada, the Indian Department became the vehicle for this new plan of quotcivilization. quot The British believed it was their duty to bring Christianity and agriculture to First Nations. Indian agents accordingly began encouraging First Nations to abandon their traditional lifestyles and to adopt more agricultural and sedentary ways of life. As we now know, these policies were intended to assimilate First Nations into the larger British and Christian agrarian society. Starting in the 1820s, colonial administrators undertook many initiatives aimed at quotcivilizingquot First Nations. One early assimilation experiment took place at Coldwater-Narrows, near Lake Simcoe in Upper Canada. A group of Anishinaabe were encouraged to settle in a typical colonial-style village where they would be instructed in agriculture and encouraged to adopt Christianity and abandon hunting and fishing as a means of subsistence. But because of poor management by the Indian Department, chronic underfunding, a general lack of understanding of First Nations cultures and values, and competition between various religious denominations, the Coldwater-Narrows experiment was short-lived and a dismal failure. Indian Legislation Despite initial problems, the quotcivilizationquot program was to remain one of the central tenets of Indian policy and legislation for the next 150 years. One of the first such pieces of legislation was the Crown Lands Protection Act. passed in 1839. This Act made the government the guardian of all Crown lands, including Indian Reserve lands. The Act responded to the fact that settlement was occurring faster throughout the 1830s than the colony could manage. Squatters were already settling on unoccupied territory, both Crown lands and Indian reserves. The statute was thus the first to classify Indian lands as Crown lands to be protected by the Crown. The Act also served to secure First Nations interests by limiting settlers access to reserves. More legislation protecting First Nations interests were passed in 1850, limiting trespassing and encroachment on First Nations reserve lands. This legislation also provided a definition of an quotIndian quot, exempted First Nations from taxation and protected them from creditors. In 1857, the British administration introduced the Gradual Civilization Act. This legislation offered 50 acres of land and monetary inducements to literate and debt-free First Nations individuals provided they abandoned their traditional lifestyle and adopted a quotcivilizedquot life as a quotcitizenquot. In 1860, the Management of Indian Lands and Property Act ( Indian Land Act ) brought about another fundamental change in First Nations relations with the Crown. This Act transferred authority for Indian affairs to the colonies, enabling the British Crown to dispense with the last of its responsibilities towards its former allies. However, colonial responsibility for the management of quotIndians and Indian landsquot very soon became a federal responsibility with the creation of the new Dominion of Canada under the 1867 British North America Act. The new nation continued the centralized approach to Indian affairs used by the British. In addition, in 1869 Canada extended its influence over First Nations by the purchase of Ruperts Land (the Hudsons Bay Company lands). The new Dominion was now responsible for addressing the needs and claims of First Nations from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. Indian Policy in British Columbia On the West Coast, the relationship between European settlers and the regions First Nation inhabitants developed quite differently from that between settlers and First Nations in the Great Lakes basin. For nearly 50 years, the commercial aspirations of the Hudsons Bay Company had overshadowed settlement in the West. With a trade monopoly for the entire British half of the Oregon territory, the HBC was content to keep its diplomatic dealings with the West Coast First Nations restricted to commercial matters relating to the fur trade. In 1849, the HBC received a new mandate to establish a colony on Vancouver Island. James Douglas, the HBC s Chief Factor and later colonial Governor after 1854, signed 14 treaties with various Coast Salish communities on Vancouver Island between 1850 and 1854. Under these treaties, the First Nations surrendered land required for settlement around various HBC posts in exchange for lump sum cash payments and goods, and the continued right to hunt and fish. The creation of the colony of British Columbia in 1859 and the rise of local control over colonial administration had a deep and lasting impact on First Nations in the region. Led by colonial surveyor and later lieutenant governor, Joseph Trutch, the colonial assembly slowly retracted the policies established by Douglas during the 1850s. Treaty making did not continue after 1854 because of British Colombias reluctance to recognize First Nations land rights, unlike all other British colonial jurisdictions. This denial of Aboriginal land title persisted even after British Colombia joined Confederation and ran contrary to the Dominions recognition of this title in other parts of the country. The Numbered Treaties Between 1871 and 1921, Canada undertook a series of land surrender treaties throughout its new territories. The objectives of these surrenders were to fulfil the requirements under the transfer to secure Canadian sovereignty to open the land for settlement and exploitation and to reduce possible conflict between First Nations and settlers. Adhering to the form of the 1850 Robinson Treaties. the Crown negotiated 11 new agreements covering Northern Ontario, the Prairies and the Mackenzie River up to the Arctic. As in the Robinson Treaties, these Numbered Treaties set aside reserve lands for First Nations and granted them annuities and the continued right to hunt and fish on unoccupied Crown lands in exchange for Aboriginal title. Also included in these new treaties were schools and teachers to educate First Nations children on reserves farming, hunting and fishing equipment and ceremonial and symbolic elements, such as medals, flags and clothing for chiefs. First Nations were not opposed to this process and in many cases pressured Canada to undertake treaties in areas when it was not prepared to do so. First Nations signatories had their own reasons to enter into treaties with the Crown. On the whole, First Nations leaders were looking to the Crown for assistance in a time of great change and upheaval in their communities. Facing disease epidemics and famine, First Nations leaders wanted the government to help care for their people. They also wanted assistance in adapting to a rapidly changing economy as buffalo herds neared extinction and the HBC shifted its operations to the North. Throughout the negotiations and in the text of the Numbered Treaties, First Nations were encouraged to settle on reserve lands in sedentary communities, take up agriculture and receive an education. The Treaty Commissioners explained that the reserves were to help First Nations adapt to a life without the buffalo hunt and that the government would help them make the transition to agriculture. These 11 treaties included land surrenders on a massive scale. The Numbered Treaties can be divided into two groups: those for settlement in the South and those for access to natural resources in the North. Treaties 1 to 7 concluded between 1871 and 1877, led the way to opening up the Northwest Territories to agricultural settlement and to the construction of a railway linking British Columbia to Ontario. These treaties also solidified Canadas claim on the lands north of the shared border with the United States. After a 22-year gap, treaty making resumed between 1899 and 1921 to secure and facilitate access to the vast and rich natural resources of Northern Canada. The Indian Act In 1876, the government introduced another piece of legislation that would have deep and long-lasting impacts on First Nations across Canada. The Indian Act of 1876 was a consolidation of previous regulations pertaining to First Nations. The Act gave greater authority to the federal Department of Indian Affairs. The Department could now intervene in a wide variety of internal band issues and make sweeping policy decisions, such as determining who was an Indian. Under the Act. the Department would also manage Indian lands, resources and moneys control access to intoxicants and promote quotcivilization. quot The Indian Act was based on the premise that it was the Crowns responsibility to care for and protect the interests of First Nations. It would carry out this responsibility by acting as a quotguardianquot until such time as First Nations could fully integrate into Canadian society. The Indian Act is one of the most frequently amended pieces of legislation in Canadian history. It was amended nearly every year between 1876 and 1927. The changes made were largely concerned with the quotassimilationquot and quotcivilizationquot of First Nations. The legislation became increasingly restrictive, imposing ever-greater controls on the lives of First Nations. In the 1880s, the government imposed a new system of band councils and governance, with the final authority resting with the Indian agent. The Act continued to push for the whole-scale abandonment of traditional ways of life, introducing outright bans on spiritual and religious ceremonies such as the potlatch and sun dance. The concept of enfranchisement (the legal act of giving an individual the rights of citizenship, particularly the right to vote) also remained a key element of government policy for decades to come. As very few First Nations members opted to become enfranchised, the government amended the Act to enable automatic enfranchisement. An 1880 amendment, for example, declared that any First Nations member obtaining a university degree would be automatically enfranchised. An 1933 amendment empowered the government to order the enfranchisement of First Nations members meeting the qualifications set out in the Act. even without such a request from the individuals concerned. In 1927, the government added yet another new restriction to the Act. In response to the Nisgaa pursuit of a land claim in British Columbia, the federal government passed an amendment forbidding fundraising by First Nations for the purpose of pursuing a land claim without the expressed permission of the Department of Indian Affairs. This amendment effectively prevented First Nations from pursuing land claims of any kind. Indian Education and Residential Schools In 1883, Indian Affairs policy on First Nations education focused on residential schools as a primary vehicle for quotcivilizationquot and quotassimilationquot. Through these schools, First Nations children were to be educated in the same manner and on the same subjects as Canadian children (reading, writing, arithmetic and English or French). At the same time, the schools would force children to abandon their traditional languages, dress, religion and lifestyle. To accomplish these goals, a vast network of 132 residential schools was established across Canada by the Catholic, United, Anglican and Presbyterian churches in partnership with the federal government. More than 150,000 Aboriginal children attended residential schools between 1857 and 1996. Part 5 - New Perspectives First Nations in Canadian Society (19141982) Despite decades of difficult and painful living conditions for First Nations under the restrictive regulations of the Indian Act. many First Nations answered the call to arms during both World Wars and the Korean War. Approximately 6,000 Aboriginal soldiers from across Canada served in the First World War alone. By the late 1940s, social and political changes were underway that would mark the start of a new era for First Nations in Canada. Several First Nations leaders emerged, many of them drawing attention to the fact that thousands of their people had fought for their country in both World Wars. First Nations across the country began to create provincially based organizations that forcefully expressed their peoples desire for equality with other Canadians, while maintaining their cultural heritage. Rolling Back Paternalism In 1946, a special joint parliamentary committee of the Senate and the House of Commons undertook a broad review of Canadas policies and management of Indian affairs. For three years, the committee received briefs and representations from First Nations, missionaries, school teachers and federal government administrators. These hearings brought to light the actual impact of Canadas assimilation policies on the lives and well-being of First Nations. The committee hearings were one of the first occasions at which First Nations leaders and Elders were able to address parliamentarians directly instead of through the Department of Indian Affairs. First Nations largely rejected the idea of cultural assimilation into Canadian society. In particular, they spoke out against the enforced enfranchisement provisions of the Indian Act and the extent of the powers that the government exercised over their daily lives. Many groups asked that these wide and discretionary powers be vested in First Nations chiefs and councillors on reserves so that they themselves could determine the criteria for band membership and manage their own funds and reserve lands. While the joint committee did not recommend a full dismantling of the Indian Act and its assimilationist policies, it did recommend that unilateral and mandatory elements of the Act be scaled back or revised. The committee also recommended that a Claims Commission be established to hear problems arising from the fulfilment of treaties. Despite the committees recommendations, amendments to the Indian Act in 1951 did not bring about sweeping changes to the governments Indian policy, nor did it differ greatly from previous legislation. Contentious elements of the Act such as the involuntary enfranchisement clause were repealed, as were the provisions that determined Indian status. However, the amendments did introduce some changes. For example, sections of the Act banning the potlatch and other traditional ceremonies, as well as a ban on fundraising to pursue land claims, were repealed. Bands were also given more control over the administration of their communities and over the use of band funds and revenues. National pension benefits and other health and welfare benefits were to be extended to First Nations. While the 1951 Act did limit some of the authority of the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development over individual bands, the government continued to exercise considerable powers over the lives of First Nations. Despite the fact that the Indian Act still limited First Nations control over their own affairs, by 1960 social and economic conditions on reserve began to improve. That year First Nations were at long last extended the right to vote in federal elections, another recommendation of the 1946 joint committee. First Nations veterans played a big role in this important advance, pointing out that, despite having fought for Canada in two World Wars, they were still deprived the right to vote. Other improvements for First Nations included the provision of better healthcare services in the mid-1950s. With these improvements, the Status Indian population increased rapidly. In addition, many more First Nations children had access to schooling, including secondary and post-secondary education. In general, however, the living conditions of First Nations still fell far short of the standards of other Canadians. The White Paper In 1969, the government began to examine a radically new approach to its Indian policy. This approach was based on the view that all Canadians held the same rights regardless of ethnicity, language or history. Arguing that the quotspecial statusquot of First Nations and Inuit had put them at a disadvantage, and that both of these groups should be fully integrated into Canadian society, the government tabled a policy paper commonly known as the White Paper. This paper called for a repeal of the Indian Act. an end to federal responsibility for First Nations and termination of special status. It also called for the decentralization of Indian affairs to provincial governments, which would then administer services for First Nations. The White Paper further recommended that an equitable way be found to bring an end to treaties. In this way, the government hoped to abolish what it saw as a false separation between First Nations and the rest of Canadian society. First Nations overwhelmingly rejected the White Paper. The complete lack of consultation with the people who would be directly affectedFirst Nations themselveswas central to their criticism. It became apparent that while many people regarded the Indian Act as paternalistic and coercive, the Act nevertheless protected special Aboriginal status within Confederation and therefore specific rights. In the face of such strong negative reaction not only from First Nations, but also from the general public, the government withdrew the White Paper in 1971. The governments attempt to change its relationship with First Nations created a new form of Aboriginal nationalism. First Nations leaders from across the country united in new associations and organizations determined to protect and promote their peoples rights and interests. These organizations proposed their own policy alternatives. The Indian Association of Alberta, for example, argued in a paper entitled Citizens Plus that Aboriginal peoples held rights and benefits that other Canadians did not. Rallying around this concept, First Nations leaders argued that their people were entitled to all the benefits of Canadian citizenship, in addition to special rights deriving from their unique and historical relationship with the Crown. The federal government slowly began to change its approach and scale back its paternalistic presence in the lives of First Nation, for example, by withdrawing all Indian agents from reserves. The government also began to fund Aboriginal political organizations. This funding allowed these groups to focus on the need for full recognition of their Aboriginal rights and the renegotiation of existing treaties. Comprehensive Land Claims As First Nations organizations such as the National Indian Brotherhood (later the Assembly of First Nations) increasingly challenged the governments Indian policy, the courts also began to weigh in on the issue. In the early 1970s, three landmark court decisions brought about an important shift in the recognition of the rights of First Nations in Canada. In Northern Quebec, a proposed hydro-electric project in the James Bay region announced in 1971 became a focal point for Cree and Inuit protests. Arguing that the lands of Northern Quebec were not covered by any existing treaties and that they still held Aboriginal rights over those lands, the Cree Nation and Inuit of Northern Quebec filed for an injunction to block the project until their claim of rights and title was addressed. In an unprecedented decision in Canadian law, in 1973 the Superior Court of Quebec ruled in favour of the Cree and Inuit, deciding that there remained an unfulfilled obligation to resolve Aboriginal title in Northern Quebec. That same year, the courts once again brought the issue of First Nations claims under public scrutiny. After decades of persistence, the Nisgaa people in British Columbia succeeded in bringing their case before the Supreme Court of Canada. Led by Frank Calder, the Nisgaa argued that Aboriginal title to lands was part of Canadian law. In their 1973 decision in the Calder case. six of the seven Supreme Court justices ruled in favour of the Nisgaa, confirming the legality of Aboriginal title. In a third court case in 1973, the Supreme Court of the Northwest Territories ruled in what has become known as the Paulette Caveat that Canada had not fulfilled its obligations under the terms of Treaties 8 and 11 in the Territories. As such, Aboriginal rights and title could not be fully relinquished to the Crown. A review of these three monumental court decisions led the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (now Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada or AANDC) to announce its willingness to negotiate land claims based on outstanding Aboriginal title. The Departments new Comprehensive Claims Policy. the aim of which was to settle land claims through a negotiated process, was announced in August 1973. Through this new policy, Aboriginal rights and title would be transferred to the Crown by an agreement that guaranteed defined rights and benefits for the signatories (i. e. land title, fishing and trapping rights, financial compensation and other social and economic benefits). The first agreement under this new policy was with the Cree and Inuit of Northern Quebec. Soon after the 1972 James Bay ruling, the Cree, Inuit and the federal and Quebec governments began negotiations in an attempt to settle Aboriginal claims and allow the hydro-electric development project to resume. Under the final agreement signed in November 1975, the concerned Cree and Inuit groups surrendered their Aboriginal title to about 981,610 square kilometres of the James BayUngava territory in Northern Quebec. In return, these parties were awarded a 225-million settlement, to be paid over 20 years. The Cree and Inuit also received tracts of community lands with exclusive hunting and trapping rights, the establishment of a new system of local government on lands set aside for their use, and First Nations control over their education and health authorities. In addition, the agreement set out measures relating to policing and the administration of justice, continuing federal and provincial benefits, and special social and economic development measures. Since 1975, the Comprehensive Claims Policy has been modified in response to Aboriginal concerns and positions. Most notably, new options were added in 1986 relating to the transfer of rights and title (as well as a broader scope of rights and other issues). A cap on the number of ongoing negotiations was lifted in 1991. The negotiation of comprehensive claims is a long and painstaking process, requiring many years to complete. From 1975 to 2009, there were 22 comprehensive claims agreements, commonly known as quotmodern treaties, quot concluded across Northern Quebec, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and British Columbia. Two of the most important agreements concluded are the Nunavut and Nisgaa agreements. Signed in 1993, the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement was the first treaty with Inuit in Canada and laid the groundwork for the creation of the Territory of Nunavut on April 1st, 1999. One year earlier in British Columbia, after over a century of claims and 24 years of negotiation, the Nisgaa Agreement was ratified by the Nisgaa, Canada and the province of British Columbia. The Nisgaa Final Agreement of 2000 was the first modern treaty in British Columbia. Specific Claims Policy As part of the wider review of how Canada dealt with First Nations claims, AANDC created a companion policy to Comprehensive Claims that addressed claims of a more specific nature. While the idea of addressing specific First Nations claims was first proposed in the 1948 joint committee report, it was not acted upon until 1973. From this point forward the Comprehensive Claims Policy would deal with issues stemming from claims to Aboriginal title, whereas the Specific Claims Policy addressed claims relating to the failure to fulfill any quotlawful obligationsquot flowing from the Indian Act or existing treaties. To accompany the policy, the Office of Native Claims was created to guide claims through the process. However, the claims process proved difficult and cumbersome, leading many First Nations to complain it was ineffective and inefficient. After amendments to the policy in the mid-1980s and again in the early 1990s, the government created the Indian Specific Claims Commission to review AANDC s decisions regarding claims and to make recommendations. While these changes to the policy did allow for more claims to be addressed, the complexity, volume and diversity of the claims were increasingly difficult to manage. Lengthy delays were common. In 2006, the Senate Standing Committee on Aboriginal Peoples recommended that the government establish a dedicated fund for the payment of specific claims settlements and an independent body with a mandate and power to resolve specific claims. In response, AANDC invited First Nations organizations to become directly involved in formulating the new Specific Claims Policy. As a result, in 2008 the Specific Claims Tribunal Act created an independent adjudicative tribunal with the authority to make binding decisions on the validity of claims and on compensation. quotExisting Aboriginal and Treaty Rightsquot The federal government entered into constitutional discussions with provincial premiers between 1977 and 1981 to reform and repatriate the Constitution. Aboriginal political organizations tried unsuccessfully to get a seat at the negotiations table. When a 1981 constitutional proposal was announced, Aboriginal and treaty rights were excluded. However, after several months of concerted lobbying, First Nations, Inuit and Mtis organizations succeeded in having two clauses included in Section 35 of the Constitution, to recognize quotexisting Aboriginal and treaty rights quot and to provide a definition of Aboriginal peoples that included all three groups. At conferences held between 1983 and 1987, attempts were made to define quotexisting Aboriginal and treaty rights. quot However, those rights remained undefined because of disagreements between the provinces, Canada and Aboriginal groups. Given this lack of consensus on a clear definition of quotexisting Aboriginal and treaty rights, quot responsibility has fallen to the courts to define the extent and scope of these rights and to direct government policies and programs so that they respect these rights and prevent any infringement of them. Part 6 - Towards a New Relationship (1982 present) Since the mid-1800s, government policy had dictated that First Nations women automatically lost their Indian quotstatusquot if they married non-Aboriginal men. This automatic enfranchisement was entrenched in successive legislation for more than a century. For decades, many First Nations members, especially women, criticized this section of the Indian Act as blatant discrimination. By the 1980s, criticism of this aspect of the Act was widespread throughout Canadian society. Spurred by a series of 1970s court challenges attacking the legality of this loss of status for First Nations women, the government consulted with First Nations leaders across the country on how best to amend the Act . Parliament passed Bill C-31 in 1985. This amendment to the Indian Act removed discriminatory provisions, eliminated the links between marriage and status, gave individual bands greater control in determining their own membership, and defined two new categories of Indian status. Through this amendment, some 60,000 persons regained their lost status. In addition, Bill C-31 distinguished between band membership and Indian status. While the government would continue to determine status, bands were given complete control over membership lists. The Oka Crisis and RCAP The need to deal with the long-standing grievances of First Nations became more urgent following the events at Oka, Quebec, in the summer of 1990. A conflict that would grab near-immediate national attention was sparked on July 11th of that year when the Quebec Provincial Police tried to dismantle a roadblock that had been set up outside Montreal in mid-March by a group of Mohawks from Kanesatake. This First Nation community had erected the roadblock to prevent the nearby town of Oka from expanding a golf course onto sacred Mohawk lands. One police officer was killed during the raid. For 78 days, armed Mohawk warriors faced off against the Quebec Provincial Police, and later the Canadian Armed Forces, before voluntarily withdrawing from their barricade after an agreement was reached between all parties. Following what became known as the Oka Crisis, First Nations leaders and political commentators across the country debated the impact of the standoff. Supporters of the Mohawk Warriors Society argued that the conflict raised the profile of Aboriginal issues in a way that Aboriginal leaders had been unable to do previously. However, others argued that any gains made were offset by increased racism toward Aboriginal peoples, a loss of credibility for the Aboriginal rights movement and rising militancy among discontented Aboriginal youth. In an attempt to address the concerns of First Nations leaders, and mere days before the conclusion of the Oka Crisis, the government announced a new agenda to improve its relationship with First Nations. The new measures included progress on land claim settlements, the creation of the Indian Specific Claims Commission, improved living conditions, an improved federal relationship with Aboriginal peoples and a review of the role of Aboriginal peoples in Canadian society. A few months later, in 1991, the government established the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP). The Commissions mandate was to propose specific solutions to issues that had long plagued the relationship between Aboriginal peoples, the government and Canadian society as a whole. The Commission published its final report in 1996, which included 440 recommendations covering a wide range of Aboriginal issues. The RCAP report is a significant body of work that has been widely used to inform public debate and policy making. Self-Government In 1983, in response to First Nations demands for greater autonomy, the House of Commons established a parliamentary committee (the Penner Committee) to investigate Aboriginal self-government. Following its study, the committee stated in its report that this right was inherent to all First Nations and should be entrenched in the Constitution alongside Aboriginal and treaty rights. In 1995, the government launched the Inherent Right Policy to negotiate practical arrangements with Aboriginal groups to make a return to self-government a reality. This process involved extensive consultations with Aboriginal leaders at the local, regional and national levels, and took the position that an inherent right of Aboriginal self-government already existed within the Constitution. Accordingly, new self-government agreements would then be partnerships between Aboriginal peoples and the federal government to implement that right. The policy also recognized that no single form of government was applicable to all Aboriginal communities. Self-government arrangements would therefore take many forms based upon the particular historical, cultural, political and economic circumstances of each respective Aboriginal group. Since the introduction of the policy, there have been 17 self-government agreements completed, many of which are part of larger Comprehensive Claims agreements. National Aboriginal Day The growing recognition of Aboriginal rights in Canadian law led to calls for greater recognition of the contributions of Aboriginal peoples to Canadian society. Shortly after the adoption of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, the National Indian Brotherhood, the leading body representing First Nations in Canada, called for the creation of a yearly quotNational Aboriginal Solidarity Dayquot on June 21st. Pressure for a national day of recognition continued to grow during the following decade as new ways were sought to bridge the divide between Aboriginal peoples and Canadians, especially in the wake of the 1990 Oka Crisis. In 1995, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples recommended the designation of a quotNational First Peoples Dayquot as a way to focus attention on the history, achievements and contributions of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. This message was repeated later that year during the Sacred Assembly, a national conference chaired by Elijah Harper, which called for a national holiday to celebrate the contributions of Aboriginal peoples. On June 13, 1996, after considerable consultation with Aboriginal organisations, June 21st was officially declared National Aboriginal Day . Since its inauguration, National Aboriginal Day has become part of the annual nationwide Celebrate Canada festivities held from June 21st to July 1st. June 21st was chosen because of the cultural significance of the summer solstice and because many Aboriginal groups mark this day as a time to celebrate their heritage. Setting aside a day for Aboriginal peoples is part of the wider recognition of their important place within the fabric of Canada and the ongoing contributions to Canadian society made by First Nations, Mtis and Inuit. Residential Schools Apology As the government continued to transfer control of local affairs to individual First Nations, education also began to be decentralized. New education policies began to emerge in the 1970s, with First Nations developing education systems that incorporated both the fundamental elements of a modern curriculum, as well as aspects of their respective traditions, languages and cultures. Special grants for training First Nations teachers, traditional language classes and lessons in First Nations history and culture helped strengthen these new education systems. With these advances, the residential school system increasingly fell out of favour and was slowly phased out. The final residential school, located in Saskatchewan, was closed in 1996. While First Nations took charge of educating their children, the legacy of the residential school system became increasingly apparent. More and more stories surfaced regarding abuse and mistreatment of children by school administrators and teachers. In 1990, the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs leader Phil Fontaine called on the government and the churches involved with residential schools to acknowledge and address the decades of abuse and mistreatment that occurred at these institutions. In its final report, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples noted the deep and lasting negative impacts this policy had on those who attended the residential schools, as well as their families, communities and cultures. As claims and litigation against the government and churches continued to mount, the first steps toward reconciliation began in the 1990s. The various churches involved in running these institutions were the first to offer their apologies to residential school survivors. In 1998, the government also acknowledged its role in the abuse and mistreatment of Aboriginal students during their time at residential schools. After nearly a decade of negotiations, in 2007 the Government announced a landmark compensation package (the Common Experience Package) for residential school survivors, worth nearly 2 billion. The settlement included a common experience payment, an independent assessment process, commemoration activities, measures to support healing and the creation of an Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission to act as an independent body and to provide a safe and culturally appropriate place for former students and others affected by the residential school system to share their experiences. The Government of Canada offered an historic formal apology on June 11, 2008, to all former students of residential schools and asked their forgiveness for the suffering they experienced and for the impact the schools had on Aboriginal cultures, heritage and languages. The apology also made clear the governments commitment to address the legacy of residential schools through continuing measures, including the work of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. You may also be interested in: About this site Contact us1600 to 1699 Settlement, Fur Trade War Introduction Beaver hats became the fashion rage in Europe in the early 17th century, and no self-respecting European was without one. This began a rush by both French and English merchants to establish control over the fur trade in the New World. Trading companies, including the Hudsons Bay Company (which still exists today) spang up almost overnight and many towns grew up around them. For the first time in history, hostilities between England and France washed over into the colonies. Land and ownership would change quickly and often, and the Native Peoples were caught in the middle. Enterprising trappers and traders became coureurs des bois (runners of the woods, or bush-lopers as they would be called by the British). Skilled paddlers became voyageurs who were hired to paddle huge canoes wherever their employers wished to go. Missionaries flooded the New World. The King of France payed for young women to move to the colonies in order to marry the male colonists already there. People with dreams of a new life became settlers and merchants. Others with a thirst for adventure became explorers and coureurs des bois. However, not only did the Europeans bring settlers and treasure hunters and new religion to the New World, they also brought alcohol, disease, and weapons which would change the lives of the Natives forever. Note: Clicking following an event opens a New Window containing more detailed information concerning that event. Related stories are linked in sequence. 1600 - Fur Trade the First Unofficial Settlement --- Beaver hats became the fashion rage in Europe and the demand for beaver pelts increased enormously. One single pelt was valued more than a human life. --- Franccedilois Grave du Pont (a. k.a. Pontgrave) and Pierre Chauvin de Tonnetuit sailed to Tadoussac and established the first unofficial settlement in Canada . Since they were Huguenot (French Protestant), the settlement was never officially recognized by the Catholic Church. 1602 - The Canada and Acadia Company --- Aymar de Clermont de Chaste was appointed Vice-Admiral of France by King Henri IV. He was commissioned to colonize New France and was granted a fur trade monopoly. To those ends, he created The Canada and Acadia Company . 1603 - Samuel de Champlain --- Franccedilois Grave du Pont was appointed de Chastes representative in New France. Samuel de Champlain sailed with him on his first voyage in March to New France. --- Samuel de Champlains first voyage under the authority of The Canada and Acadia Company to set up fur trade and to enforce a fur trade monopoly. --- May 13 - Aymar de Clermont de Chaste died. Pierre du Gua de Monts replaced him as Lieutenant General of Acadia and took over the fur trade monopoly. --- May 27 - Champlain was told by the Montagnais and Algonkins that they had attacked an Iroquois village near the Iroquois River and massacred and scalped over 100 Iroquois. Champlain suspected exaggeration, but noted that it was an attempt by the Natives to show that they were seeking an alliance with the French. 1604 - Champlain and the Iroquois --- Champlains second voyage . Champlain encountered the warring Iroquois near Cape Cod with disasterous results. He returned to the Bay of Fundy on the western shore of Nova Scotia. 1605 - Champlain - First Permanent Settlement in Canada --- Champlain founded Port-Royal (present-day Annapolis, Nova Scotia) which ultimately became the first permanent settlement in Canada. (see Champlain Details, 1604) --- The Canada and Acadia Company went bankrupt. The de Monts Trading Company was formed by de Monts, Champlain, and Pontgrave. (see Champlain Details, 1604) 1608 - Champlain - Queacutebec Conspiracy --- July 8 - Champlain founded Kebec (Queacutebec - hereafter spelled Quebec) . the name deriving from the Algonkin word for where the river narrows. Traitors, hired by the Spanish and Basque, conspired to murder Samuel de Champlain. Champlain discovered the conspiracy and his drastic actions ultimately sealed an alliance with the natives of Huronia. 1609 - Champlain - Battle of Ticonderoga --- June 5 - A relief ship from France arrived in Quebec to find only 8 of the original 28 colonists left alive. The others had died of scurvy and winter. --- Eacutetienne Brucircleacute was sent by Champlain to live among the Hurons as a truchement (embassador) (see 1610). Nicolas du Vignau was sent to live among the Algonquins on the Ottawa River. Savignon, son of the Algonquin chief Iroquet, was sent to live in France. The exchange was a great success. --- Champlain allied with the Natives north of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River against the Iroquois to the south in the Battle of Ticonderoga . The battle would introduce European guns to the Iroquois with deadly results. --- Arms trade following the Battle of Ticonderoga. --- Writer Marc Lescarbot . who sojourned with Champlain, became the first historian of Canada with his book A History of New France. --- Henry Hudson was commissioned by King James I of England to locate the Northwest Passage . (see 1610) --- The fur trade monopoly granted to The de Monts Trading Company was not renewed. The Company folded and de Monts formed a partnership with the Rouen Merchants. 1610 - John Guy - First English Settlement in Canada --- April 26 - The first Jesuits arrived in Quebec. They were not well-received in New France. Their ambiguous beliefs and anti-Christian actions were matters of great contention throughout their time in the New World. --- May 2 - The Company of Adventurers and Planters of London and Bristol (a. k.a. The New Found Land Company) was established with the intent to colonize Newfoundland. --- John Guy and 39 colonists settled Cupers Cove (present-day Cupids Cove, Newfoundland) under King James I of England. Cupers Cove became the first English settlement in Canada . --- Eacutetienne Brucircleacute became the first coureur de bois . His life among the Huron would lead him to adventure and, eventually, death. --- Henry Hudson explored Hudson Bay . mistaking it for the Pacific Ocean, and became icebound in James Bay. (see 1611) 1611 - Henry Hudson - Mutiny --- The crew of the Discovery mutinied when Henry Hudson wanted to continue his search for the Northwest Passage. Hudson, his son, and 7 others were set adrift in Hudson Bay. No trace of them was ever found. (see Henry Hudson Details, 1610) 1612 - John Guy and The Beothuk --- John Guy discovered the reclusive Beothuk, which would ultimately be the first and only recorded encounter with the Beothuk . (see John Guy Details, 1611) --- With Englands first settlement, Cupers Cove (present-day Cupids Cove), failing, John Guy resigned as Governor and returned to England. The settlement at Cupers Cove was abandoned shortly thereafter. (see John Guy Details, 1611) --- Samuel Argall, a pirate based in Virginia, attacked, looted and destroyed Port-Royal (present-day Annapolis, Nova Scotia). --- The Beothuk vanished from the New World. (see also 1823) 1615 - Champlain and The Black Robes --- The name given to the missionaries by the Natives, there were 3 main groups of Black Robes: The Jesuits, the Reacutecollets, and the Suplicians. --- Three Reacutecollet friars who were under directions from France and with orders to convert the Natives to Catholicism accompanied Champlain on his first journey into Huronia. --- Champlain accompanied a Huron invasion party in an attack against the Iroquois. Champlain was wounded in battle. --- Father Joseph le Caron celebrated the first mass in what is present-day Ontario . --- Schools were opened in Trois-Riviegraveres and Tadoussac to teach Native children. More than teaching them, though, the French hoped to convert the children to Christianity. --- Louis Heacutebert became the first true permanent settler in Canada (one who supported his family from the land and not with supplies from the homeland). --- Fort Trois-Riviegraveres became a trading post. --- With France in civil war, King James I of England commissioned William Alexander to reclaim New France and Acadia under authority of John Cabots claim in 1497. --- Henri II, Duc de Montmorency, was named Viceroy of New France. Samuel de Champlain was appointed his lieutenant. De Montmorency began building Fort Saint Louis on the cliffs at Quebec. He formed the Compagne de Montmorency (Montmorency Company) and was granted an 11-year fur trade monopoly. --- June 3 - The cornerstone of the first stone church in Quebec . Notre Dame des Anges, was laid by the Reacutecollets. --- The coureurs des bois (free fur traders) founded a trading post at Hochelaga (present-day Montreal) and named it Palace Royal. The coureurs des bois were considered pirates by the Church, so many of their accomplishments were attributed to either the priests or to other Frenchmen. --- King Louis XIII of France merged the Compagne de Montmorency and the Compagne des Marchands de Rouen et de Saint Malo. --- Henri II, Duc de Montmorency, established the feudal land system in Canada by granting the fief of Sault au Matelot to Louis Heacutebert, Canadas first permanent settler. (see 1617) --- The French established a peace treaty with the Wendat (Hurons), Algonkins (Algonquins) and the Iroquois. --- Armand-Jean de Plassis, Cardinal Richelieu . became Chief Minister to the French Crown and became the absolute master of New France . He imposed a monopoly on all commerce and proclaimed that all baptized (i. e. Catholic) colonists and Natives would receive equal rights. This action would create a caste system in Canada which would remain to present times. --- Henri II, Duc de Montmorency, resigned as Viceroy of New France. His nephew, Henri de Levis, Duc de Vantadour, took his place. Champlain remained as de Vantadours lieutenant. --- Jesuit missionaries from the Society of Jesus began working amongst the Indians around Quebec to convert the Natives to Christianity. Jean de Breacutebeuf founded Jesuit missions in Huronia, near Georgian Bay. --- The Iroquois destroyed the Mohicans and dominated all of eastern North America south of the St. Lawrence. They set their sights to the north. --- January 25 - Louis Heacutebert, Canadas first permanent settler, died after a serious fall on the ice. --- April 29 - The Company of One Hundred Associates (a. k.a. the Company of New France), organized by Armand-Jean de Plassis, Cardinal Richelieu . was given a fur-trade monopoly to all the lands claimed by New France. Champlain was named Lieutenant to the Viceroy of Canada and commissioned to establish a permanent colony of at least 4,000 people before 1643, which they failed to do. (see 1628) --- Meanwhile, hostilities between England and France continued to grow. 1628 - The Kirke Brothers --- The French ships carrying colonists to Quebec were intercepted by the Kertk (Kirke) brothers . ultimately resulting in the surrender of Quebec. (see Details, 1627) --- July 19 - Louis Kirke attacked and took over Quebec in Britains name. Champlain would work for the next 3 years to overturn the conquest of New France. (see Details, 1627) --- It is quite likely that the family of Louis Heacutebert (see 1617) swore allegiance to England in order to retain their property and belongings rather than to be deported as were many other French families following the fall of Quebec to the British. --- The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye returned Quebec to France under the condition that King Louis XIII pay the dowry of one million livres to England. Champlain returned to rebuild the colony. (see Details, 1627) --- Eacutetienne Brucircleacute was murdered by the Hurons, either for trading with the Iroquois or for his sexual improprieties. The Hurons feared that Champlain would seek retribution, but Champlain, who now considered Brucircleacute a traitor, promised the Hurons that no action would be taken against them. 1634-1649 - Smallpox and the End of the Hurons --- With the coming of the White Man came also White Mans diseases: Measles, Influenza, and Smallpox to name just a few. Thousands of Hurons died and, by 1649, the Iroquois had all but wiped out those who survived. Forty years after meeting Samuel de Champlain, the Huron Nation ceased to exist. --- December 25 - Samuel de Champlain died on Christmas Day in Quebec. --- Sir Louis Kirke (knighted in 1633) was made the first governor of Newfoundland . --- Jesuits founded the Jesuit College in Quebec . --- Jacques Marquette (of Marquette and Jolliet) was born in France. (see 1666) 1639 - Marie de lIncarnation the Ursuline Convent --- Marie de lIncarnation embarked for New France, arriving on August 1. She became the first female missionary in Canada . Thanks to her frequent correspondence with her son, Claude, we have a unique glimpse into Canadas pioneer history. --- Marie de lIncarnation founded the Ursuline Convent in Quebec and became the first Mother Superior of New France . --- Catholic militants, The Mystics . founded Ville Marie (present-day Montreacuteal, hereafter spelled Montreal) . led by Jeacuterocircme le Royer de la Dauversiegravere and his wife, Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve (soldier and commander), and a nurse, Jeanne Mance (aged 34). Considered a foolhardy enterprise by Governor Montmagny, the Society was doomed to failure. --- (circa 1641) Meacutedard Chouart des Grosseilliers (of Radisson and Grosseilliers) arrived in New France. He spent several years in Huronia before meeting his future partner and brother-in-law, Pierre-Esprit Radisson. (see also 1651 and 1654) 1642-1667 - Iroquois Invasions --- For 25 years, New France was under almost constant siege by the Iroquois. Using guerrilla raids instead of outright invasions, the Iroquois brought fur trade to a complete standstill. Anyone venturing out of the safety of Montreal, Quebec, or Trois-Riviegraveres, even to gather fire wood, did so at extreme risk. Smaller settlements were massacred. Dozens of Jesuit missionaries were brutally murdered and the missions destroyed. Many other missions were abandoned. The Iroquois destroyed what remained of the Huron Nation. These invasions ultimately resulted in a declaration of war by France against the Iroquois. --- Jesuit Isaac Joques . attempting to convert Iroquois to Christianity, was captured and tortured the first time. He returned in 1645, but on October 18, 1646, Joques was hacked to death by the Iroquois. He was only 39 years old. --- November 21 - Reneacute-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle was born in Rouen, Normandy. He would come to be known as the Mad Explorer . Through trickery and some devious manipulations, la Salle would ultimately explore the Mississippi River and claim the entire Mississippi basin for France. (see 1667) --- Louis Jolliet (of Marquette and Jolliet) was born near Quebec in September. (see 1655) --- Pierre-Esprit Radisson (of Radisson and Grosseilliers) arrived in Trois-Riviegraveres with his family. He was captured by the Iroquois with whom he lived for a time, escaped, and then made his way back to New France where he became partners with Meacutedard Chouart des Grosseilliers. (see also circa 1641 and 1659) --- Iroquois defeated the Petun and Ottawa nations, gaining control of the entire St. Lawrence region. --- Louis Jolliet (of Marquette and Jolliet) was enrolled in the Jesuit college in Quebec at the age of 10 where he began his study for the priesthood. (see 1667) 1659 - Radisson and des Grosseilliers --- Following the loss of trade with the demise of the Huron Nation, the King of France commissioned Pierre-Esprit Radisson and his brother-in-law Meacutedard Chouart des Grosseilliers to explore westward and set up trade relations with any natives they discovered. During their voyage, they discovered the headwaters of the Michissipi River . The reactions to their return to Quebec would cause them to change allegiance to England (see 1665) and ultimately create the Hudsons Bay Company for England. (see 1669). --- Franccedilois de Laval arrived in Quebec as the Vicar General of the Pope in June. --- In May, about 500 Iroquois Natives attacked Long Sault. Defended by only about 60 people, including Adam Dollard des Ormeaux, Long Sault was able to withstand the attack. Because of this battle, tradition holds that the Iroquois were so impressed with the efforts of the small band of Frenchmen that they decided not to attack Montreal as originally planned. 1661 - King Louis XIV War against the Iroquois --- The Prime Minister of France died and Pierre Boucher was sent from Trois-Riviegraveres to France to beg help from 22-year-old King Louis XIV. Louis dreamed of ruling a huge empire and found Bouchers reports disturbing. He didnt want to begin his reign by losing New France to the Iroquois. King Louis XIV dismissed royal administration in the colony and appointed a governor and intendant and promised significant military support. War was declared on the Iroquois. --- February 23 - The first concerns over the trade of alcohol for furs were met with a decree which made the sale of alcohol to natives illegal under threat of excommunication. (see 1679) 1663-1673 - Filles de Roi (Daughters of the King) --- Over 800 Filles de Roi (Daughters of the King) were sent to New France for the purpose of settling there and marrying the many single male settlers. Unlike other women who had been brought to New Fance at the expense of the colonists, the Filles de Roi were sponsored by King Louis XIV of France. 1663 - Royal Province of Quebec --- Quebec became a royal province and Laval organized the Seacuteminaire du Queacutebec . (Originally a theological college, the Seacuteminaire would eventually become the Universiteacute de Laval in 1852.) 1664-1671 - Engageacutes and Voyageurs --- Over 1,000 engageacutes (indentured servants) settled in New France, hired by colonial farmers, merchants, religious people, etc. Contracts lasted 3 years, during which time the engageacutes were denied citizenship, marriage, and were prohibited from becoming involved in fur trade. For their work, the engageacutes were paid 75 livres per year minus food, lodging and clothing. Their contracts could be bought or sold at any time without their consent. At the end of their tenure, the engageacutes had only the clothes on their backs, a few coins in their pockets, perhaps a gun if they were lucky enough, and their freedom. Most returned to France but many remained and became voyageurs . which were, essentially, canoeists for hire. --- Hans Bernhardt became the first recorded German immigrant. 1665 - Radisson des Grosseilliers Change Allegiance --- Following the fines and confiscation of their furs in 1660, Radisson and des Grosseilliers secretly sailed to England where they switched their loyalties and began the process of forming the Hudsons Bay Company, a company which still exists in Canada. (see 1669) --- Jean Talon became Quebecs first intendant (an administrative officer who oversaw agriculture, education, justice, trade, etc.). Talon arrived with the Carignan-Saliegraveres Regiment (1,200 soldiers who had been sent by King Louis XIV to deal with the Iroquois situation) and other representatives to the crown Governor Daniel de Remy de Courcelle, and the Commander of the troops, the Marquis of Tracy. (see 1666) 1666 - War without a War --- France launched its war against the Iroquois . Oddly enough, there would not be a single encounter, yet the war would end with a significant loss of life. --- Jacques Marquette (of Marquette and Jolliet) arrived in New France . --- Canadas first census . counting 3,215 non-native inhabitants. --- Radisson and des Grosseilliers, having failed to secure a new commission from France, gained sponsorship from Prince Rupert, cousin of King Charles II of England. --- Louis Jolliet renounced his clerical vocation and left the Jesuit college at the age of 23 in order to become a coureur de bois . --- Reneacute-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle . who had also renounced his Jesuit vows 2 years earlier, arrived in New France, his first step on the road to becoming The Mad Explorer . (see 1669) --- The Carignan-Saliegraveres Regiment was recalled to France. Several hundred, however, chose to remain in New France. --- Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette (of Marquette and Jolliet) arrived on assignment in Sault Ste. Marie where he met Louis Jolliet . Jolliet was well-aquainted with the Great Lakes region and could speak 5 indigenous native languages. (see 1673) --- Radisson and des Grosseilliers sailed to Hudson Bay on their first voyage under the British flag. This voyage would confirm the creation of the Hudsons Bay Company (see 1674). During the voyage, Radissons ship became damaged in a storm and he was forced to return to England. Des Grosseilliers continued on the Nonsuch . returning later with a shipload of furs. He was richly rewarded and was dubbed Knight of the Garter by King Charles II. --- La Salles first voyage to the Mississippi River proved his incompetence as an explorer. (see 1673) --- The Suplician missionaries of Montreal discovered that the Great Lakes were all linked on their first and only voyage into the Upper Country. 1670 - Hudsons Bay Company --- May 2 - The Hudson Bay Company was founded by King Charles II . Underwritten by a group of English merchants, the royal charter granted trade rights over Ruperts Land to the company. (Ruperts Land included all the land draining into Hudson Bay. At its most powerful, the Hudsons Bay Company owned 10 of the entire land surface of the earth.) --- June 4 - Simon Daumont de Saint-Lusson formally took possession of the western interior of North America by declaration at Sault Ste. Marie. Effectively, the declaration claimed all the land from Sault Ste. Marie north to Hudson Bay, west to the Pacific Ocean, and south to the Gulf of Mexico. --- Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac became the Governor-General of New France . His first administration would last 10 years. Despite his haughtiness, Frontenac would accomplish much in New France before being recalled to France in 1682. --- April 30 - Marie de lIncarnation died in Quebec, never having returned to France and never having seen her son again. She was 72. --- Jesuit Father Charles Albanal travelled up the Saguenay River and reached Hudson and James Bays. --- Marquette and Jolliet were commissioned by Frontenac to explore the Michissipi (Mississippi) River to determine if it flowed into the Pacific Ocean (as hoped) or into the Gulf of Mexico (as feared). --- La Salle constructed Fort Cataracoui (also Cataraqui, present-day Kingston, Ontario) . In France, la Salle began his lifestyle as a shrewd con man in order to further his wealth and historical prominence. (see 1678) --- Radisson and des Grosseilliers renounced their allegiance to England and returned to France to explore and trade under the French flag. --- Laval became the first Bishop of Quebec . --- Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette died at Green Bay from illnesses acquired during his trip down the Mississippi River. Louis Jolliet returned to Quebec where he was married. He became a renowned merchant who was often consulted by the colony officials when important trade and settlement decisions had to be made. (see also 1679) 1676 - End of the Coureurs des Bois --- April 15 - King Louis XIV signed a decree banning fur trade from private traders and trappers, the coureurs des bois . The decree forced the natives to travel to specific trading posts on specific days to trade their furs and the coureurs des bois eventually passed into history. Using bribery and deception, la Salle secured a commission from King Louis XIV to explore the Mississippi River. (see 1682) --- Reacutecollet priest Louis Hennepin became the first person to describe and to draw Niagara Falls. --- King Louis XIV signed another decree preventing the sale of alcohol outside any French dwelling and banned transportation of alcohol to any Native village under threat of severe penalty. --- Louis Jolliet was commissioned to travel to Hudson Bay in order to assess the expansion and success of the Hudsons Bay Company. --- Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye . friend to Pierre-Esprit Radisson, formed the Compagnie Franccedilaise de la Baie dHudson (a. k.a the Northern Company) in an effort to compete with the Hudsons Bay Company of England. Radisson and des Grosseilliers were hired by the Company to reclaim the trading posts on Hudson Bay. This would ultimately be the final, tragic, and disturbing chapter in the Radisson and des Grosseilliers saga. 1682 - La Salle. the Mad Explorer --- April 9 - Reneacute-Robert Cavelier de la Salle reached the mouth of the Mississippi River after 4 years of exploring the length of the river. He claimed the entire Mississippi basin in the name of France and named it Louisiana after King Louis XIV. (see 1684) --- King Louis XIV revolked the title of Governor-General granted to Louis de Buade, Compte de Frontenac in 1672 and recalled him to France. 1684 - La Salle and Louisiana Using altered maps, la Salle tricked the King of France into believing that Louisiana was rich in silver and that the mouth of the Mississippi River would be an ideal place for a colony and fort in order to stave off Spanish incursions from the south. The King named la Salle commander of all Louisiana and commissioned him to start a colony on the Mississippi Delta. La Salles haughty, self-serving nature would ultimately result in his assassination. (see 1687) --- March 19 - La Salle was ambushed and shot in the head by Pierre Duhault. Mortally wounded, la Salle was stripped naked by his men. All his belongings were taken away and la Salle was left where he had fallen. 1689 - English Invasion --- May - France and England declared war. English colonists in New York heard the news first and convinced their Iroquois allies to attack the French. Most French colonies were unfortified. Their vast expansion had not allowed them to defend them properly. --- August 5 - 1,500 Iroquois attacked Lachine near Montreal, which became known as the Lachine Massacre . Of the 375 inhabitants, 24 were killed and 76 others were taken prisoner. Fifty-six of the 77 buildings were razed to the ground. --- October - Frontenac was renamed Governor of New France. He would come to be known as the Saviour of New France . 1690 - French Retaliation King Williams War --- Following the Lachine Massacre, Frontenac ordered a retaliatory attack on Albany in the British colony of New York. This war, the first in the British and French colonies, would come to be known as King Williams War . --- February - Frontenac began his invasion. One hundred and sixteen militiamen and 96 Indian allies were placed in the charge of coureur de bois Nicolas DAilleboust de Manthet and brothers Jacques le Moyne de Sainte-Heacutelegravene (see October 16, 1690) and Pierre le Moyne dIberville (see 1696). They reached the fort at Schenectady and massacred 60 settlers. --- May 11 - Sir William Phips . (sent by Massachusetts) captured Port-Royal (Annapolis, NS). --- October 16 - Admiral Phips approached Quebec with 34 ships, including 4 warships. Phips sent Major Thomas Savage to demand the surrender of Quebec and the entire French colony. Frontenacs reply was: The only answer I have for your general will come from the mouths of my cannon and muskets. Frontenac had been forewarned of the invasion and had secretly gathered 3,000 militiamen and natives. When Phips attempted a landing, he was surprised by resistance from Jacques le Moyne de Sainte-Heacutelegravene and the invasion was repulsed. le Moyne died in battle. --- October 24 - With many of his ships seriously damaged by artillery fire from Quebec, Phips weighed anchor and returned to Boston. --- Louis Jolliet was commissioned to explore and map the coastline of Labrador and to assess the trade possibilities there. 1696 - Les Canadiens British Surrender --- France and England were at war yet again. Pierre le Moyne dIberville became the most famous Canadien . (colony-born soldier). He ejected the British from Hudson Bay and, in November, led 120 militia and Mikmaq warriors and attacked British fishing outposts on Newfoundland before attacking the settlement and fort at St. Johns. In the attack on the settlement, dIberville had the homes torched, then scalped a prisoner named William Drew and sent the scalp into the fort with a demand for surrender. The British surrendered and abandoned St. Johns to the French. --- For his efforts, dIberville was dubbed Chevalier de lOrdre de Saint Louis, the highest military distinction in the kingdom of France. --- The Treaty of Ryswick assured that all lands captured during the struggles between the English and French were returned. --- November 28 - Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac died at Quebec. He was 76.Chapter 4 - A Clean Growth Economy Introduction Protecting the environment and growing the economy go hand in hand. Countries around the world are looking for new ways to expand and green their economies and create opportunities for their citizens. The global clean technology market is growing rapidly, presenting Canadian businesses with an immense opportunity to showcase their ingenuity and support sustainable prosperity for all Canadians. At the recent United Nations Climate Conference (COP21) in Paris, alongside 194 other participating countries, Canada agreed to take steps to support the transition to a global low-carbon economy by limiting the global temperature increase to less than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. The Government also announced its participation in Mission Innovation, a public-private initiative to dramatically increase global investments in clean energy. Acting on these commitments, in partnership with provinces and territories, the Government is now developing a pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change. Pricing carbon emissions will drive Canadas transition to a stronger, more resilient, low-carbon economy and help Canada address the global climate change challenge. Supporting a clean economy will help position Canada to take advantage of opportunities in the new global economy by diversifying the economy and opening up access to new markets, while reducing emissions and generating well-paying jobs for Canadians. The investments made in Budget 2018 are just the start and additional actions will be coming. Investing In Clean Technology Clean technologies are a key component of the Governments approach to promoting sustainable economic growth and will play a critical role in Canadas transformation into a low-carbon economy. The global clean technology market presents a promising opportunity for Canadian businesses, a source of new clean jobs for the middle class and a driver of prosperity for all Canadians. As a first step, Budget 2018 proposes to provide early strategic funding for clean technology projects to take advantage of this growth opportunity and enhance environmental performance, which are outlined in the following sections. To support future investments, Budget 2018 proposes to provide over 1 billion over four years, starting in 201718, to support clean technology, including in the forestry, fisheries, mining, energy and agriculture sectors. Further details about the allocation of this funding will be provided in the coming months as part of the implementation of the Governments Innovation Agenda. Accelerating Clean Technology Development Investing in the research, development and demonstration of new clean technologies accelerates the innovation required to bring these technologies closer to commercialization. This will help meet climate change objectives, increase the productivity and competitiveness of Canadian firms, and create clean jobs. Budget 2018 proposes to provide over 130 million over five years, starting in 201817, to support clean technology research, development and demonstration activities: 50 million over four years, starting in 201718, to Sustainable Development Technology Canada (SDTC) for the SD Tech Fund. These resources will enable SDTC to announce new clean technology projects in 2018 that support the development and demonstration of new technologies that address climate change, air quality, clean water, and clean soil. 82.5 million over two years, starting in 201817, to Natural Resources Canada to support research, development and demonstration of clean energy technologies. These resources will accelerate the innovation required to bring clean energy technologies closer to commercialization, reducing the environmental impacts of energy production and creating clean jobs. Supporting Innovative Clean Technologies Sustainable Development Technology Canada (SDTC) was established in 2001 and supports the development of a broad range of technologies to increase productivity, efficiency and the competitiveness of Canadian industry and help contribute to a cleaner environment. The SD Tech Fund is the flagship program operated by SDTC. Clean technology companies that have benefitted from SDTCs support include: Sigma Devtech Inc. ( Quebec) Biodegradable plastic is often identified as a solution to address the mountains of plastic that end up in landfills, but it is currently produced in small quantities and at a high price. Sigma Devtech intends to overcome these problems using technology that produces a type of bioplastic from pulp mill waste. SDTC is providing 3.1 million to this project. Cellufuel Inc. ( Nova Scotia) A biofuel that is chemically indistinguishable from petroleum-based fuel and compatible with existing fuel infrastructure and engines has been difficult to produce. Cellufuels technology converts wood into renewable diesel that meets the quality of petroleum diesel. SDTC is providing 2.2 million to this project. Comet Biorefining Inc. ( Ontario) Bio-based products can potentially replace petro-based products in a range of industries, improving sustainability through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Comet Biorefinings proprietary technology converts non-food biomass, such as agricultural and forest material, into high-purity dextrose sugar. The sugar can be transformed into a range of renewable chemicals and biomaterials, and by-products from the process can be used for animal nutrition and performance chemicals. SDTC is providing 10.9 million for this project. Investing in Electric Vehicle and Alternative Transportation Fuels Infrastructure Early action is needed to support the transition to low-carbon transportation fuels, as vehicle choices made today will determine the mix of technologies on the road in 2030. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 62.5 million over two years, starting in 201817, to Natural Resources Canada to support the deployment of infrastructure for alternative transportation fuels, including charging infrastructure for electric vehicles and natural gas and hydrogen refuelling stations. The Government will advance these objectives by working with provinces and territories, municipalities and the private sector. These resources will also support technology demonstration projects that advance electric vehicle charging technology. Expanding Tax Support for Clean Energy The income tax system encourages businesses to invest in clean energy generation and energy efficiency equipment by providing accelerated capital cost allowance (CCA) rates. CCA Classes 43.1 and 43.2 include a variety of equipment that generates energy by using renewable energy sources or fuels from waste, or conserves energy by using fuel more efficiently. Budget 2018 proposes to expand eligibility for accelerated CCA in two important emerging areas: electric vehicle charging and electrical energy storage. First, the incentive will be extended to include electric car charging stations, with the most generous treatment provided to chargers that provide enough power for long-distance travel. Electric vehicles and stationary renewable energy generation are complementary technologies providing an incentive for both helps to maximize the potential environmental benefits of renewable energy generation. Second, the range of stationary electrical energy storage equipment eligible under CCA Classes 43.1 and 43.2 will be clarified and expanded to explicitly allow a much broader range of equipment ancillary to eligible generation equipment. In addition, stand-alone electrical energy storage property will be included in Class 43.1 when the round trip efficiency of the energy storage is greater than 50 per cent. Electrical energy storage helps displace fossil-fuelled power generation and facilitate the integration of a higher proportion of intermittent renewable electricity generation into the electrical grid. The deferral of tax associated with these measures is expected to reduce federal revenues by 19 million over the 201817 to 202021 period. Investing in World-Leading Researchers in Clean and Sustainable Technology Research is the starting point for new technologies and approaches that will help Canada to become a low-carbon economy. The Canada Excellence Research Chairs Program strengthens Canadas ability to attract and retain world-leading researchers in areas of strategic importance to Canada. Canadian universities receive up to 10 million over seven years for each Chair hosted at their institution. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 20 million over eight years, starting in 201819, to create two additional Canada Excellence Research Chairs in fields related to clean and sustainable technology. These Chairs will be selected, in addition to the anticipated 20 new Chairs, as part of the upcoming competition to be launched in the spring of 2018. Canadas World Leaders in Clean Technology Research Through the Canada Excellence Research Chairs Program, the Government of Canada is supporting world-leading researchers and their teams in clean technology fields, helping to position Canadians to seize opportunities in global markets while protecting the environment. Dr. Steven L. Bryant, Canada Excellence Research Chair in Materials Engineering for Unconventional Oil Reservoirs at the University of Calgary, is working to bridge the gap between the current technological status of the oil sands industry and where it needs to be to ensure a sustainable, globally competitive future. Dr. Bryants team is combining nanotechnology and materials science research with chemical and petroleum engineering, geoscience and chemistry to reduce the process footprint for current extraction platforms, and develop new platforms that minimize environmental impact and maximize productivityhelping to accelerate the industrys transformation. Dr. Ali Emadi, the Canada Excellence Research Chair in Hybrid Powertrain at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, is advancing Canadas automotive research leadership in the critical area of electric powertrain technology. This work is helping to transform transportation through plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles, responding to the needs of a growing population of energy-conscious consumers in Canada and across the globe. Dr. Robin Rogers, Canada Excellence Research Chair in Green Chemistry and Green Chemicals at McGill University in Montral, Quebec, is spearheading efforts to redesign chemicals, materials and manufacturing technologies to prevent pollution and save energy, and in so doing create new business opportunities. For example, his research on biologically active ionic liquids for the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries is contributing to increased efficacy, new treatment options and a reduced environmental burden. Increasing Federal Support for Clean Technology Activities in All Regions Canadas six Regional Development Agencies support economic and community development by leveraging local networks and capabilities. The Agencies combined support to clean technology activities amounted to 50 million in 201816. Budget 2018 announces that the Regional Development Agencies will double their annual aggregate support for clean technology to 100 million per year, from existing resources, starting in 201817. Green Bonds: Smart Investments in Canadas Clean Growth Green bonds are a way to finance projects that support important environmental objectives. They are also a way for investors to know that their money will be used in an environmentally sound manner. In December 2018, Export Development Canada (EDC), a federal Crown corporation, issued a green bond of US300 million. This builds on its successful Green Bond Framework and previous US300 million issue in 2017. These proceeds are being used to support eligible transactions in the following categories: renewable energy, industrial process improvements, recycling and recovery, biofuels and bioenergy, waste and water management, alternative energy and public ground transportation. EDC is committed to becoming a regular issuer in the green bond market. Advancing Regional Electricity Cooperation Significant investment in Canadas electricity sector will be needed over the next 20 years to replace aging infrastructure and meet growing demand for electricity. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 2.5 million over two years, starting in 201817, to Natural Resources Canada to facilitate regional dialogues and studies that identify the most promising electricity infrastructure projects with the potential to achieve significant greenhouse gas reductions. This initiative will help shape future investments to maximize economic and environmental benefits. Developing Cleaner Oil and Gas Technologies Developing Canadas hydrocarbon resources in cleaner, more sustainable ways will be critical to enable the sectors continuing contributions to Canadian prosperity. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 50 million over two years, starting in 201817, to Natural Resources Canada to invest in technologies that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the oil and gas sector. Improving Data on the Clean Technology Sector Comprehensive, regularly published data on Canadas clean technology sector will support efforts to monitor the contributions this sector is already making to the Canadian economy. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 2.1 million over two years, starting in 201817, to Natural Resources Canada to enhance clean technology data, in collaboration with Statistics Canada and Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada. This funding will result in a statistical framework that provides regularly published information on the clean technology sectors economic contributions to the Canadian economy and help the Government track progress towards clean technology objectives. Securing a Cleaner, More Sustainable Environment Protecting the environment and growing the economy are not incompatible goals. A clean environment and a strong economy go hand-in-hand. The Government is committed to leaving future generations of Canadians a sustainable and prosperous country. To this end, Budget 2018 proposes to provide 3.4 billion over five years, starting in 201817, to address climate change and air pollution, protect ecologically sensitive areas and restore public trust in the environmental assessment processes. Addressing Climate Change and Air Pollution The Government has committed to provide leadership as Canada works towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. There is recognition that a collaborative approach between provincial, territorial and federal governments is important to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enable sustainable economic growth. Canada is moving towards a pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change that will meet or exceed Canadas international greenhouse gas emissions targets. Pricing carbon will be a key element to transition Canada to a stronger, more resilient low-carbon economy while also improving our quality of life. At the First Ministers Meeting on March 3, 2018, the Government, along with provincial and territorial partners, agreed to work together to create the Vancouver Declaration on Clean Growth and Climate Change. The Declaration is the first step in developing a concrete plan to achieve Canadas international commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and build on the momentum of the United Nations Paris Agreement. Budget 2018 proposes to provide almost 2.9 billion over five years, starting in 201817, to address climate change and air pollution issues. This funding will: Support the development of the pan-Canadian Framework, including a Low Carbon Economy Fund Help ensure that Canada meets its international obligations Take action to reduce emissions from Canadas largest sourcestransportation and energy Advance science and programming activities to better understand and adapt to the changing climate and Enable evidence-based decisions to address air pollution. Supporting the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change In the context of the pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change, the Government has committed to create a Low Carbon Economy Fund. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 2 billion over two years, starting in 201718, to establish the Low Carbon Economy Fund. The Fund will support provincial and territorial actions that materially reduce greenhouse gas emissions and are incremental to current plans, and achieve significant reductions within the period of Canadas nationally determined target. Resources will be allocated towards those projects that yield the greatest absolute greenhouse gas reductions for the lowest cost per tonne. Budget 2018 also proposes to provide 109.1 million over five years, starting in 201817, to Environment and Climate Change Canada to continue to advance the Governments domestic climate change objectives. The resources will be used to undertake actions in four interconnected areas: science, data reporting, policy and regulations. Sustained action on climate change, framed by sound science and driven by transparent reporting of results and ambitious policy and regulatory measures, will support the transition to a low-carbon economy in Canada. Moving to a Cleaner Transportation Sector The transportation sector represented 23 per cent of Canadas greenhouse gas emissions in 2017, and is the second largest source of emissions in Canada. It is also a significant source of air pollution. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 56.9 million over two years, starting in 201817, to Transport Canada and Environment and Climate Change Canada to support the transition to a cleaner transportation sector, including through the development of regulations and standards for clean transportation technology. Funding will also support Canadas continued participation in the development of international emissions standards for emissions from the international aviation, marine and rail sectors, including through the International Maritime Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization. Supporting Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Development Energy efficiency and clean energy policies increase the uptake of clean technologies, reduce the environmental impact of energy use and can provide cost savings for Canadians. These measures are essential for the transition to a low-carbon economy. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 128.8 million over five years, starting in 201817, to Natural Resources Canada to deliver energy efficiency policies and programs, and maintain clean energy policy capacity. These resources will support improved energy efficiency standards and codes for products, buildings, industry and vehicles, and further the development of a legislative framework for offshore renewable energy projects. Budget 2018 also proposes to provide 10.7 million over two years, starting in 201817, to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada to implement renewable energy projects in off-grid Indigenous and northern communities that rely on diesel and other fossil fuels to generate heat and power. First Nations will also benefit from proposed new funding for the First Nations Infrastructure Fund (see Chapter 3A Better Future for Indigenous Peoples), which will support a range of community infrastructure investments, including energy systems. Adapting to Climate Change Impacts Canada will also need to adapt our public infrastructure to a changing climate and strengthen the resilience of our communities to the impacts of climate change. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 129.5 million over five years, starting in 201817, to seven federal departments and agencies to implement programming focused on building the science base to inform decision-making, protecting the health and well-being of Canadians, building resilience in the North and Indigenous communities, and enhancing competitiveness in key economic sectors. Budget 2018 also proposes to provide an additional 40.0 million over five years, starting in 201817, to integrate climate resilience into building design guides and codes. The funding will support revised national building codes by 2020 for residential, institutional, commercial and industrial facilities. Guides integrating climate resiliency into the design and rehabilitation of public infrastructure will also be ready for adoption by 2020. Ensuring International Environmental Cooperation Climate change and air pollution are international issues that require international cooperation to find solutions. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 61.3 million over five years, starting in 201817, to Environment and Climate Change Canada, Natural Resources Canada and Global Affairs Canada to continue international environmental engagement to advance Canadas climate change and air pollution objectives. This funding will ensure Canada continues to play a leadership role in international environmental organizations, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and will allow Canada to work toward a North American clean energy and environmental agreement with the United States and Mexico. Canadas International Climate Finance Commitment Canada is committed to ambitious action on climate change. On November 27, 2018, the Government announced that Canada will contribute an historic total of 2.65 billion on a cash basis by 2020 to help the poorest and most vulnerable countries mitigate and adapt to the adverse effects of climate change. Canadas climate finance contribution, scaling up to 800 million per year on a cash basis by 202021, is a substantial increase from historical levels of support and represents a doubling of Canadas fast-start financing levels. Canadas climate finance contribution will be delivered through a variety of channels and instruments for critical efforts, such as helping developing countries adapt to climate change, deploying renewable energy technologies and managing risks related to severe weather events. This contribution will support the commitment Canada made under the 2009 Copenhagen Accord to work with partners to jointly mobilize, from a wide variety of sources, US100 billion annually by 2020. Reducing Air Pollution Air pollution harms the environment and the health of Canadians, and gives rise to economic costs. While progress is being made to address air emissions from domestic sources (i. e. industry and vehicles) and from transboundary sources, air pollution remains a concern. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 345.3 million over five years, starting in 201817, to Environment and Climate Change Canada, Health Canada and the National Research Council to take action to address air pollution in Canada. The funding will allow these organizations to conduct research on and monitor air pollution sources as well as health and environmental impacts report to Canadians on air pollution sources and on local, regional and national air quality continue to implement the Air Quality Management System jointly with provinces and territories administer and enforce existing regulatory and non-regulatory instruments to reduce air pollution and maintain the economic and policy capacity to develop new policy approaches and regulatory instruments to improve air quality. These efforts will be complemented through advances in Canadian clean technology, providing air pollution reduction solutions alongside economic opportunities, and contributing to sustainable, inclusive prosperity for Canadians. Tax Treatment of Emission Allowance Regimes Several provinces have introduced or are in the course of introducing emissions trading regimes. Budget 2018 proposes specific income tax rules to clarify the income tax treatment of emission allowances and ensure the appropriate tax treatment of transactions under these regimes. Protecting and Restoring Canadas Ecosystems and Natural Heritage Canadas national parks, national marine conservation areas and marine protected areas provide outstanding examples of our countrys natural landscapes, generate economic activity by attracting visitors from Canada and abroad, and provide Canadians with access to our natural heritage. From coast to coast to coast, Canada has unparalleled ocean and freshwater resources. Actions to protect water quality and ecosystem health are critical to the lives and livelihoods of all Canadians. Budget 2018 proposes a number of measures to support the further enhancement and expansion of protected areas to improve evidence-based decision-making through increased funding for ocean and freshwater science to protect the quality of water in Canadas lakes and oceans and to reduce risks to human health and the environment by taking action on federal contaminated sites. Providing Free Access and Expanding the National Park System Canadas national parks belong to all Canadians. The Parks Canada Agency is responsible for protecting and presenting nationally significant examples of Canadas natural and cultural heritage. Through its broad network of national parks, marine conservation areas and national historic sites, Parks Canada connects Canadians with their heritage. The Government is committed to expanding the national parks and national marine conservation areas systems to ensure each of Canadas distinct natural regions is protected. It is also committed to developing and expanding programs and services so that more Canadians can experience our national parks and learn about our environment and historic sites. Budget 2018 proposes to provide up to 142.3 million over five years, starting in 201817, to the Parks Canada Agency and Natural Resources Canada to deliver on these commitments: 42.4 million over five years, starting in 201817, to continue work on developing new national parks and national marine conservation areas, including the Lancaster Sound National Marine Conservation Area, Nunavut and Thaidene Nene National Park, Northwest Territories Up to 83.3 million over five years, starting in 201817, to provide free admission for all visitors to national parks, national marine conservation areas and national historic sites operated by the Agency in 2017, the 150th anniversary of Confederation, and to provide free admission for all children under 18 years of age, beginning in 2018 and 16.6 million over five years, starting in 201817, to expand the Learn to Camp program, develop new programming to tell Canadas stories, and encourage Indigenous story-telling and eco-tourism opportunities. Investing in Our National Parks Canadas national parks belong to all Canadians. The Government is committed to preserving and expanding our national parks, national marine conservation areas and historic sites and to making them more accessible to Canadians. To achieve this, Budget 2018 provides significant new investments, including: 42.4 million to the Parks Canada Agency and Natural Resources Canada to continue work on developing new national parks and national marine conservation areas, including the Lancaster Sound National Marine Conservation Area, Nunavut and Thaidene Nene National Park, Northwest Territories Up to 83.3 million to the Parks Canada Agency to provide free admission for all visitors to national parks, national marine conservation areas and national historic sites operated by the Agency in 2017, the 150th anniversary of Confederation, and to provide free admission for all children under 18 years of age, beginning in 2018 and 16.6 million to the Parks Canada Agency to expand the Learn to Camp program, develop new programming to tell Canadas stories, and encourage Indigenous story-telling and eco-tourism opportunities. As part of the federal infrastructure initiative in Chapter 2Growth for the Middle Class, Budget 2018 proposes to provide up to 191 million over two years, starting in 201817 on a cash basis, to the Parks Canada Agency to improve tourism and highway assets, including: 85.9 million to twin part of the Trans-Canada Highway through Yoho National Park in British Columbia 21.6 million to pave highways through Wood Buffalo National Park in the Northwest Territories 65.9 million for a new biking and walking trail in Jasper National Park in Alberta and 17.7 million to build a new biking and walking trail in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve in British Columbia. Protecting Marine and Coastal Areas Canada is a signatory to the International Convention on Biological Diversity. In 2017, members of the convention adopted the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, which included a target to conserve 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas by 2020. To achieve this, Canada needs to conserve an additional 525,000 km2, an area roughly equivalent to the size of all of the Atlantic provinces. In Canada, marine and coastal areas are protected through a variety of measures, including the designation of Marine Protected Areas under the Oceans Act . National Marine Conservation Areas and National Wildlife Areas. Approximately 1 per cent of Canadas marine and coastal areas have already been protected. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 81.3 million over five years, starting in 201817, to Fisheries and Oceans Canada and Natural Resources Canada to support marine conservation activities, including the designation of new Marine Protected Areas under the Oceans Act . Parks Canada will also continue efforts to develop new National Marine Conservation Areas. Together these actions are designed to achieve the target to protect 10 per cent of Canadas marine and coastal areas by 2020. Investing in Ocean and Freshwater Research Oceans and waterways are vital to Canadas economy. They connect us with global markets and are a resource for coastal and Indigenous communities. Scientific evidence is the foundation on which the Government develops policies around the management and protection of the oceans, coasts, waterways and fisheries to ensure that they are healthy, sustainable and profitable for future generations. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 197.1 million over five years, starting in 201817, to Fisheries and Oceans Canada to increase ocean and freshwater science, monitoring and research activities and to provide support for the Experimental Lakes Area in Northwestern Ontario. Funding will support new and expanded research activities that will promote the health of fish stocks and sustainable aquaculture, enable more comprehensive monitoring of the impacts of aquatic pollution, and enhance our knowledge of freshwater ecosystems. Improving Great Lakes Water Quality and Ecosystem Health Millions of Canadians live and work along the shores of the Great Lakes. Protecting water quality and ecosystem health in the Great Lakes is vital to ensuring that Canadians can continue to depend on this rich ecosystem for their drinking water, for recreation and for jobs. To date, phosphorus levels in Lake Erie have been measured and reduction targets have been established. To help preserve the Great Lakes as a valuable resource, Budget 2018 proposes to provide 3.1 million in 201817 to Environment and Climate Change Canada to continue to improve nearshore water and ecosystem health by reducing phosphorus and the resulting algae in Lake Erie. With these resources, the focus will shift from setting phosphorus targets to achieving them, including developing a domestic action plan, and monitoring and reporting on progress. Lessons learned from phosphorus reduction in Lake Erie could be applied to the other Great Lakes. Managing Transboundary Water Issues Canada and the United States share 20 per cent of the worlds freshwater in the Great Lakes alone, and jointly manage countless other lakes and rivers. The International Joint Commission is the binational body that manages these Canada-U. S. transboundary waters. These waters are of great economic, environmental and symbolic value to Canadians, and how we manage them is of utmost importance. In recent years, flooding, variable water levels and water quality have affected four important water basins that straddle the Canada-U. S. borderthe Upper Great Lakes, Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River, Lake of the Woods and the Souris River. Budget 2018 proposes to provide up to 19.5 million over five years, starting in 201817, to the International Joint Commission to enable Canada to match U. S. funding to study these issues in order to protect the local environment and communities. Addressing the Threat of Pollutants From the Manolis L The Manolis L . which sank to a depth of more than 80 metres in 1985 off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador, lay dormant until April 2017 when cracks in the hull, coupled with a powerful storm, allowed some fuel oil to reach the surface. Since then, the Canadian Coast Guard has installed an oil containment system. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 6 million in 201817 to the Canadian Coast Guard for a technical assessment of the wreck, a critical next step in developing a permanent solution to addressing the threat of pollution from the vessel. Accelerating Federal Contaminated Sites Clean-Up Federal contaminated sites are a legacy of past practices that have resulted in contamination. These sites pose environmental and human health risks to Canadians and the environment. As part of the federal infrastructure initiative in Chapter 2Growth for the Middle Class, Budget 2018 proposes to provide over 200 million over two years, starting in 201817 on a cash basis, to accelerate the assessment and remediation of contaminated sites for which the Government is responsible. This funding will identify and reduce the risks to human health and the environment from federal contaminated sites. Strengthening Canadas Environmental Assessment Processes Robust environmental assessment processes support evidence-based decision-making for major projects. Canadians look to the Government to ensure that these processes take full account of the environmental, social and economic considerations surrounding new projects. Budget 2018 proposes measures to rebuild trust in Canadas environmental assessment processes, provide the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency with the necessary resources to deliver on its responsibilities, and increase and sustain capacity for evidence-based decision-making for projects in the North. Restoring Trust in Environmental Assessment In the Speech from the Throne, the Government committed to review federal environmental assessment processes as part of efforts to restore public trust and support the renewal of the relationship with Canadas Indigenous peoples. The Government has further committed to ensure that decisions on projects undergoing federal environmental assessments will be informed by scientific evidence and that Indigenous peoples will be more fully engaged in reviewing and monitoring major projects. On January 27, 2018, the Government announced the following interim principles to guide environmental assessments for major projects as the first part of a broader strategy: Project reviews will continue within the current legislative framework and in accordance with treaty provisions. Decisions will be based on science, and traditional knowledge of Indigenous peoples. The views of the public and affected communities will be sought and considered. Indigenous peoples will be meaningfully consulted, and where appropriate, impacts on their rights and interests will be accommodated. Direct and upstream greenhouse gas emissions linked to the projects under review will be assessed. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 16.5 million over three years, starting in 201817, to the National Energy Board, Natural Resources Canada and Transport Canada to implement the interim approach. This funding will support public and Indigenous participation in enhanced consultations in projects undergoing reviews by the National Energy Board and to support Crown consultations with Indigenous people. Funding provided to the National Energy Board will be fully cost-recovered from industry. Supporting the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is the main authority responsible for federal environmental assessments. It conducts environmental assessments, advises the Minister of Environment and Climate Change in establishing project review panels, and supports the panels in their work. The Agency also supports the Minister in fulfilling her responsibilities under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2017 . including the development and issuance of enforceable environmental assessment decision statements. In addition, the Agency administers a Participant Funding Program that provides support for individuals, non-for-profit organizations and Indigenous groups to participate in federal environmental assessments. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 14.2 million over four years, starting in 201817, to the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency to support the Agency in fulfilling its responsibilities under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2017 . These resources will support activities, such as increasing Agency capacity to undertake consultations with the public and Indigenous groups, and will support compliance and enforcement. Taking Stock of the Arctic Environment The Arctic is a vast and dynamic ecosystem as well as a place of tremendous natural resource potential upon which northern communities rely for their livelihoods. The Government is committed to early engagement of Inuit people on potential offshore oil and gas activity in the Arctic and to ensuring that decision-making regarding the management of resources is evidence-based and considers possible impacts to the unique environment and wildlife. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 19 million over five years, starting in 201817, to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada to collaborate with researchers and Inuit communities to gather existing research and traditional knowledge of the Arctic environment and conduct new research where gaps in knowledge exist. This work will help assess the potential environmental impacts of future oil and gas activity in three regions of the Arcticthe Beaufort Sea, Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, and Kivalliq, Kitikmeot and the Arctic Islands of Nunavutand inform whether oil and gas activity should proceed in these regions. Improving Regulatory Review Processes for Major Projects in the North Large resource development and infrastructure projects are primary drivers of the northern economy, creating employment and business opportunities, and generating tax revenues that benefit Northerners and all Canadians. Since 2017, the Northern Projects Management Office has played a vital role in coordinating the participation of federal departments and agencies in the regulatory review processes of proposed major resource projects and infrastructure projects in the North, including environmental assessments, coordinating federal Crown consultations, and tracking the progress of these projects in the North. The Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency supports development initiatives in the territories and is the regional delivery agent for the Northern Projects Management Office. Budget 2018 proposes to provide 10.1 million over four years, starting in 201817, to the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency to continue the Agencys leadership role in the Northern Projects Management Office in improving the timeliness, predictability and transparency of northern regulatory review processes. Table 4.1 A Clean Growth Economy millions of dollars